The National Institute of Certified Floor-Covering Inspectors (NICFI) is a non-profit association of independent floor covering inspectors. NICFI members are expert flooring failure analysts and expert witnesses in flooring problems and failures.
NICFI members are experienced in the inspection and failure analysis of woven carpet, broadloom carpet, resilient tile, rubber tile, cork tile, ceramic tile, resilient sheet vinyl, vinyl composition tile, LVT, hardwood, laminate, solid vinyl,

and specialty flooring materials.
NICFI members attend the annual NICFI Convention in Dalton, Georgia, to increase their knowledge and update their skills. The Annual Convention includes updates on indicative field testing procedures, tools, products and product defects. The NICFI is the only Non-Profit Association in the Flooring Industry with membership comprised solely of Certified Floor Covering Inspectors.

 ON OR OFF SITE PAYMENT

CAPABILITIES

INVOICE TO

BE SENT

 

floorcovering@cox.net 

 

PHOTOS

       IS THIS YOUR COMPLAINT?

FLOORCOVERING CERTIFIED INSPECTION SERVICE-CA

EXPERT DEFINITIONS:

 

CERTIFIED INSPECTOR:

  • F.C.I.S.-CA  is CERTIFIED by independent, accredited certification bodies recognized by the industry or profession, in which the inspector applies his knowledge and investigative skills.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA Investigates, evaluates and provides written and/or oral opinions regarding his findings that assist his commissioned client to reach decisions regarding a perceived or actual problematic condition.

 

CONSULTANT:

  • F.C.I.S.-CA is a recognized expert, in a specialized field of endeavor, who provides counsel to his clientele regarding matters pertaining to his field of expertise. Some consultants may or may not be licensed. F.C.I.S.-CA is licensed and as a consultant, findings are "privileged communication" between the consultant and the Attorney/client.

 

EXPERT WITNESS: Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 702 defines an F.C.I.S.-CA

  • Expert Witness as: EXPERT: "A person displaying special or knowledge arrived from training or experience"
  •  

WITNESS: "One who has an acquired a personal knowledge of something".

  • Once F.C.I.S.-CA consultant has been "designated as an expert"' in a legal matter, all of the consultants relative case files are open to "discovery" by the opposing attorney.

 

F.C.I.S.-CA EXPERT WITNESS: JOB DESCRIPTION

  • F.C.I.S.-CA Physically investigates and reads available documentation pertaining to the conditions and situations that F.C.I.S.-CA has been retained to evaluate.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA gather all necessary information in the form of, reports from others, photos, videotape, diagrams, plans and specifications that are necessary to reach an accurate assessment of all conditions that F.C.I.S.-CA will be required to testify about.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA prepares all information so that it can be accurately organized and if required be transmitted to the retaining attorney or the client.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA as needed educates the attorney/client regarding any and all aspects of your findings to ensure they have the most accurate and current information available to property evaluate the matter at hand. It will be necessary to provide your findings to the attorney or client at intermittent periods during the litigation process. This includes Deposition and Trial or arbitration testimony.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA  is prepared to present your entire case file in an organized manner and provide your best testimony at deposition (under oath) before one or more opposing Attorneys.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   provides testimony (under oath) and your complete case file at trial. It is critically important that you are able to "paint a clear and concise picture" of the events, situations and conditions that you have observed during your investigation. It is your job to educate the judge and jury on the merits of your position and explain why your theories are valid and credible.

 

F.C.I.S.-CA LISTED EXPERT QUALIFICATIONS INCLUDE:

  • Education
  • Certifications
  • Training and job history
  • Specific need for your area of expertise

 

F.C.I.S.-CA SKILLS REQUIRED INCLUDE:

  • The ability to speak intelligently, accurately, and succinctly in regard to any matter in your field of F.C.I.S.-CA   expertise. The ability to communicate, in writing, all of your opinions pertaining to your Findings. The ability to teach and educate your attorney and others in regard to your expertise and the pertinent aspects of the case, so he may select the appropriate questions to ask that enables the him to reveal F.C.I.S.-CA expertise and create a clear and concise mental picture of the case circumstances .
  • F.C.I.S.-CA displays confidence in ability, credibility and is stubborn enough not to be intimidated by attorneys during aggressive direct and cross-examination.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA constantly works at developing and maintaining credibility prior to and during any F.C.I.S.-CA investigation, deposition, trial or arbitration.  
  • F.C.I.S.-CA expert/consultant plays an important role in litigation matters. F.C.I.S.-CA performs and the results of F.C.I.S.-CA investigation provides the basis for legal strategy in any litigation.

 

LAWYERS LOOK FOR ?

  • Education and certification
  • Experience
  • Compatibility/Consultant/Attorney/Partnership
  • Specific knowledge or unique area of expertise
  •  

HOW CAN F.C.I.S.-CA JUSTIFY THE AMOUNT CHARGES?

  • Education
  • Experience
  • Scarcity of other experts in your field of expertise
  • Prior experience - previous litigations

 

ROLE OF THE F.C.I.S.-CA   EXPERT WITNESS:

  • F.C.I.S.-CA   accesses the trior of facts to understand the evidence; or to determine responsibility or fault.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   tells the truth that your evidence reveals.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   assists the trior of fact to understand scientific, technical or other specialized knowledge & evidence to determine fault in regard to issues at hand, it F.C.I.S.-CA   legal responsibility to reveal, in a truthful manner, all of the information that you are requested to provide.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   inspects, evaluates and determines the actual conditions both pro and con based on the facts as they are discovered and any industry standards and practices that are applicable.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   evaluates all facts and conditions pertaining to the matter and advises the attorney/client of their options for defending or filing of any plaintiff action.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   is typically prepared to develop extensive records consisting of written documents developed by F.C.I.S.-CA   and other parties pertinent to the case. This file will also contain physical evidence, photographs, videotape and tape recordings when applicable. The F.C.I.S.-CA   file is typically well organized to retrieve information for months or even years after the materials have been cataloged. F.C.I.S.-CA is certain to be questioned in regard to any relative document written, any previous testimony provided, and in all probability F.C.I.S.-CA   will be cross examined about any verbal opinions you have rendered that can be verified.

 

RULES TO FOLLOW:

  • F.C.I.S.-CA   is professional dressed, "coat and tie is always worn at deposition or any court gathering".
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   is completely prepared to present your opinions and evidence.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   always stays within the limits of your personal knowledge and area of expertise.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   studies the question before providing an answer.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   answers only questions that are asked, relatively without offering additional information.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   always is credible and truthful.
  • F.C.I.S.-CA   does not argue with counsel.

 

TACTICS OF OPPOSING ATTORNEYS:

  • Discredit personally and/or devalue the consultants area of expertise.
  • Tries to point out lack of experience.
  • Tries to make it appear that the expert is not qualified.
  • Makes it appear that the consultant is attempting to represent yourself as an expert in too many areas of expertise.
  • Attempt to draw you into providing information about the case that is outside the scope of your expertise.

 

WHY BECOME AN EXPERT WITNESS:

Positives:

1. Prestige

2. Excellent income potential

3. Challenging work

 

Negatives:

1. Highly pressurized work demands and time frames.

2. Attempting to deal in an organized manner with law firms that are generally unprepared and disorganized.

3. Long drawn out cases, many cases will take from 2 to 3 years to resolve, if they don't go to trial.

4. Substantial initial cash outlay for equipment and additional staff that may not be covered by the amount of the initial retainer.

5. Slow paying clients - be prepared to carry receivables from a minimum of 60 days to as long as 1 year. These receivables can often exceed $100,000.00.

6. Mandatory attention to excruciating detail. If you don't have the personal ability or talented staff that can perform this function you should not attempt to enter this area of endeavor.

 

METHODS OF LITIGATION:

  • Deposition - The process where by one or more attorneys are provided the opportunity to question the F.C.I.S.-CA   expert (under oath) and revue the entire case file. F.C.I.S.-CA   is typically fully prepared to provide your best testimony at deposition because any statements issued in deposition will become bound in a document that will encompass all of your findings and will be the benchmark for your testimony at time of trial
  • Mediation - a party selected jointly by plaintiff and defense that will work diligently with both parties and assist the negotiations that will enable both parties to reach an agreeable settlement.
  • Arbitration - Plaintiff and defendant appear before a judge or a judge pro-tern (often a practicing attorney who does not necessarily have experience in the subject matter of that case). There are two kinds of arbitration. Binding and non-binding. In each case the arbitrator hears all of the evidence and reaches a decision. The decisions of non-binding arbitration is subject to appeal. Binding arbitration means the decision is final and must be accepted by both parties.
  • Trial by Judge - All matters are tried before a single judge. Decisions in these matters are subject to appeal. Many small claims court actions are tried before a Judge or Judge pro-tern.
  • Trail by Jury - Evidence is presented by plaintiff and defendant before a Judge and Jury. The size of the jury can vary from 6 to 12 people. These decisions are subject to appeal in a higher court. The emotional and monetary rewards derived from the performance of expert services can be extremely gratifying. If one has the people skills, is highly organized and motivated to become a success, the profession of providing expert witness services can be one of the most emotionally rewarding and satisfying careers in the job market today. Just remember, F.C.I.S.-CA is not a mediocre expert.  

CONSTRUCTION DEFECTS-SB800

CONSTRUCTION DEFECTS-SB800

•  SB800 – Right to Repair Act (residential)

Performance/Cause and Effect

– Provides standards for construction

– “Foundation systems and slabs shall not allow water or vapor to enter into the structure so as to limit the installation of the type of flooring materials typically used for the particular application.”

– “manufactured products shall be installed so as not to interfere with the products’ useful life”

– Ceramic tile shall not detach.

SB800: General Summary

1. When Does SB800 Apply?
SB800, effective January 1, 2003, establishes a mandatory process prior to the filing of certain types of construction defect suits. The bill applies whenever there are defects alleged by a homeowner in new residential construction, but does not apply to condominium conversions.

2. Who is Covered by the Bill?
The bill provides that any construction defect action against a builder, subcontractor, product manufacturer or design professional will be governed by the standards set forth in SB800. (Note that the existing Certificate of Merit requirements for design professionals are not abrogated by the bill and apply in the event a lawsuit is filed after completion of the SB800 process.)

3. What is a "Defect" Under SB800?
The bill attempts to specifically define what constitutes a "defect" for virtually all aspects of a residential building and its appurtenant systems. Most of the definitions for defective construction concentrate on water intrusion issues (requiring that building systems such as windows, doors, roofs and plumbing "shall not leak") and also provide that the defects "shall not materially impair the use of the structure by its inhabitants."

4. What Must Be Done Before a Lawsuit is Filed?
The statutory process outlined by SB800 must be exhausted prior to the filing of a lawsuit. A Homeowner initiates the process by first submitting a written claim to Builder's designated agent.  If no offer to repair the alleged defects is made by the Builder, or if the Builder otherwise fails to adhere strictly to the process,the Homeowner may proceed with the filing of a lawsuit.

5. What is the Timetable for the Claims Procedure?
As illustrated in the accompanying time-line (as well as in Attachment #2) the following hypothetical schedule assumes that a Homeowner has notified the Builder of alleged defects on January 3, 2003. It is also assumed (for purposes of simplicity and to illustrate the maximum duration of the statutory pre-litigation process), that each event takes place on the last day of the period allowed under the bill.

* Homeowner submits claim to Builder on January 3, 2003.

* Builder must "acknowledge" claim by January 17, 2003.

* If Builder sends Homeowner a written acknowledgment on January 17, it then has until * *January 31, 2003 to complete its preliminary inspection.

* Builder has until February 3, 2003 to request a second inspection. This second nspection must

   be completed within 40 days, i.e., by March 15, 2003.

* Builder then has until April 14, 2003 to make its offer to repair some, all or none of the alleged

   defects and to suggest a contractor to perform the work.

    * Homeowner may consider Builder's offer until May 14, 2003.  Should Homeowner object

       to the repair contractor designated by Builder, Builder has until June 18, 2003 to provide

       Homeowner with a list of three alternative contractors. [Builder may also make a final,

      "non-invasive" inspection, ostensibly to facilitate the involvement of the repair

       contractor, by June 3, 2003.]

    *Assuming Homeowner agrees to a repair contractor on June 18, 2003 repairs must

       commence by July 2, 2003.

    * "Every effort" must be made to complete repairs by October 30, 2003.

Total duration of illustrated process: 300 days.  

6. What Happens If the Homeowner Does Not Follow SB800?.

   If a Homeowner does not file a written claim with Builder in advance of filing suit, SB800

   provides for a statutory bar to the action and a court would have no authority to hear the

   case. The case would be dismissed without prejudice, meaning it could be re-initiated at a

   later time, after proper exhaustion of the SB800 process.

7. What Defenses are Available Under SB800?
The bill sets forth certain statutory affirmative defenses available to the Builder for: (a) unforeseen acts of nature in excess of the design criteria expressed by the applicable building codes; (b) Homeowner's unreasonable failure to minimize or prevent damages; (c) Homeowner's, or his/her agent's or employee's, failure to follow recommended or commonly accepted maintenance obligations; (d) defects caused by alterations, ordinary wear and tear, misuse, abuse, or neglect; (e) defects barred by the statute of limitations; (f) defects subject to a valid release; and (g) the extent that Builder's repair was successful in correcting the defects.

8. What Happens After the SB800 Process is Completed?
If the Builder has not strictly adhered to the process, or if the repairs are not suit or initiate other legal proceedings (i.e., arbitration). The Homeowner need not follow the SB800 process for matters not covered by the legislation (i.e., alleged defects in products, such as washers/dryers, etc., which have been manufactured completely offsite).

9. How Are Subsequently Discovered Defects Handled?
All defects discovered after the process is completed would require the initiation of a new SB800 procedure and the Builder is not responsible for repairs of defects which it had no notice of or opportunity to repair. If the statute of limitations has already run when the defect is discovered, the process cannot be initiated and no lawsuit may be brought. If the process is initiated prior to the running of the statute, the statute will be extended to allow Homeowner and Builder to complete the process (see below).

10. Are the SB800 Proceedings Admissible in Evidence?
If an action to enforce the bill's standards is initiated in court by a Homeowner, the fact that a repair effort was made may be introduced to the trier of fact, and evidence of the parties' conduct during the repair process may be introduced during a subsequent enforcement action. Repair efforts by a Builder are not considered confidential and privileged settlement communications and may not be withheld from evidence on this basis.

11. What is the Interplay Between SB800 and the Calderon Process?
Civil Code Section 1375 (commonly referred to as the "Calderon" bill) sets up an analogous pre-litigation process for common interest development projects such as condominiums. The pre-trial process prescribed by Section 1375 is mandatory and involves a minimum 6-month period of information exchange and alternative dispute resolution ("ADR") sessions between the prospective litigants. SB800 creates another, entirely separate, pre-litigation process that lasts for at least 101 days. Because it is entirely foreseeable that certain residential projects will fall within the ambit of both SB800 and Calderon, SB800 contains an express provision excusing compliance with Section 1375's provisions where the requirements of the two statutes are "substantially similar."

12. How Does SB800 Affect the Aas Case?
Liability under SB800 would arise in spite of the Supreme Court's decision in Aas v. Superior Court (2000) 24 Cal.4th 627 (which held that only those construction defects causing property damage are actionable under negligence and strict liability theories). Under SB800, it is not required that the "construction defects" enumerated in the legislation cause property damage, thereby amounting to a legislative veto of the Aas decision.

13. How does SB 800 Change Existing Statutes of Limitation?
Existing law provides that an action based on defects not apparent from a reasonable inspection ("latent" defects) must be brought no later than 10 years after "substantial completion" of the development or improvement. Although SB800 maintains the 10-year statute of limitations for actions falling within the ambit of the bill, there are shorter time frames prescribed for certain types of defects (i.e., 1 year for noise transmission and irrigation system claims, 2 years for defective wood posts, 4 years for defective steel fences, 5 years for painting claims, etc.). Further, if the 10-year statute of limitations expires during the SB800 process, it will be extended for 100 days following completion of the repairs. The 10-year statute of limitations is also extended in the event a mediation occurs after completion of the repairs.

14. What Immunity for 3rd-Party Inspectors Does SB800 Provide?
SB800 provides immunity from liability to third-party inspectors who provide, under contract with an applicant for a residential building permit, an "independent quality review" of residential plans and specifications. This immunity would extend to any potential claimant except the person who retains the inspector, meaning only the person paying the inspector for his/her services could sue for negligence. A third-party inspector will be required to meet certain minimum experience requirements to qualify for the immunity, and will also be required to maintain a minimum of $2 million in liability insurance coverage.

15. Is A Builder Released after Completing Repairs?
A Builder is not released after completing repairs. The bill presumes that a Builder warrants implicitly, in addition to any express warranties on the original construction, that the repairs will be reasonably adequate to restore the structure to the condition intended by its designers, and that the home will be reasonably habitable by its occupants. Specifically, a Builder may not obtain a release or waiver of any kind in exchange for the repair work mandated by the bill. If the repairs fail before the statute of limitations runs, a Homeowner may still bring a lawsuit against the Builder. However, nothing in the bill prohibits a Builder from obtaining an enforceable release in exchange for a cash payment.

16. What Effect Does SB800 Have Upon Warranty Obligations?
SB800 requires Builders to provide homeowners with a minimum one-year express warranty covering the "fit and finish" of cabinets, mirrors, flooring, interior and exterior walls, countertops, paint finishes and trim. The bill also permits builders to exceed the warranty standards of the bill and provide homeowners with other more extensive warranties.

17. What Mediation Procedures are Contained in SB800?
If a Builder has complied with the bill's requirements and has completed a repair prior to the filing of an action by a Homeowner (and if there has been no previous mediation between the parties), the Homeowner is then required to request mediation in writing. In the event that a mediation is undertaken at this point, any applicable statutes of limitation will be tolled. SB800 also allows a Builder to pursue ADR as an alternative to its provisions. However, a Builder may not pursue ADR as an alternative to SB800 and then also insist on compliance with the SB800 process after completion of ADR.

18. Who May Participate in the SB800 Process Besides Builders?
SB800 provides that if the Builder intends to hold a subcontractor, design professional, or material supplier, including an insurance carrier, warranty company, or service company, responsible for its contribution for any construction defects, the builder shall provide notice to that person or entity sufficiently in advance to allow them to inspect the alleged defects and to participate in the repair process.

19. Will SB800 Reduce the Amount of Construction Defect Litigation?
Despite its lofty intentions, SB800 will probably not result in an appreciable decrease in the amount of construction litigation in California, and may actually cause additional litigation over its meaning and intent. To begin with, many of the construction defect definitions are qualitative in nature and subject to dispute (i.e., "foundations shall not contain significant" cracks or vertical displacement," "stucco or other exterior finishes shall not contain significant cracks or separation," "exterior hardscape shall not contain cracks that display significant vertical displacement or that are excessive," "windows, patio doors, deck doors or their systems shall not allow excessive condensation to enter the structure," "stucco and exterior siding systems shall not allow excessive condensation to enter the structure," etc.). These and other similar definitions are sure to be the subject of much dispute among expert witnesses in forthcoming construction defect litigation.

Perhaps more importantly, a Builder who performs repairs pursuant to the SB800 process may not obtain a legally binding release, thus raising a potential disincentive to perform such work. Serious insurance coverage questions may also arise with respect to any voluntary repair work performed by a Builder pursuant to SB800, and for construction defects which do not result in property damage. Further, depending upon the complexity of the issues involved, the time deadlines set forth in SB800 may not prove workable or realistic under the circumstances.

In sum, it will probably be many years before the final chapter on SB800's effectiveness in actually decreasing construction defect litigation will be written. However, given the far-reaching nature of the legislation and its attendant ambiguities and complexities, it is probably a safe bet that residential construction defect claims will continue to be a hotly litigated area in the foreseeable future.

 

Aas v. Superior Court (William Lyon Company) (2000) 24 Cal.4th 627 , 101 Cal.Rptr.2d 718; 12 P.3d 1125 [No. S071258. Dec. 4, 2000.]

ALAN O. AAS et al., Petitioners, v. THE SUPERIOR COURT OF SAN DIEGO COUNTY, Respondent;

WILLIAM LYON COMPANY et al., Real Parties in Interest.

PROVENCAL COMMUNITY ASSOCIATION, Petitioner, v. THE SUPERIOR COURT OF SAN DIEGO COUNTY, Respondent; WILLIAM LYON COMPANY et al., Real Parties in Interest.

(Superior Court of San Diego County, Nos. 695611 and 694688, Robert E. May, Judge.)

(The Court of Appeal, Fourth Dist., Div. One, Nos. D030218 and D030399.)

(Opinion by Werdegar, J., with Kennard, Baxter, Chin, and Brown, JJ., concurring. Concurring and dissenting opinions by George, C. J. (see p. 653), and by Mosk, J. (see p. 673).)

COUNSEL

Procopio, Cory, Hargreaves & Savitch, Steven M. Strauss, Edward I. Silverman and Victor M. Felix for Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Epstein & Grinnell, Douglas W. Grinnell, Luis E. Ventura; The Law Offices of Duane E. Shinnick, Silldorf, Shinnick & Duignan and Duane E. Shinnick for Petitioner Provencal Community Association and for Consumer Attorneys of California as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Ian Herzog; Douglas Devries; Roland Wrinkle; Harvey R. Levine; Robert Steinberg; Thomas G. Stolpman; William D. Turley; Mary E. Alexander; Joseph Harbison III; Bruce Broilett; Wayne McClean; Leonard Sacks; Tony Tanke; Lea-Ann Tratten; Steven J. Kleifield; David Rosen; Moses Lebovits; Christine Spagnoli; James Sturdevant; Daniel Smith; Deborah David; Lawrence Drivon; Thor Emblem; Rick Simons; David Casey, Jr., Kasdan, Simonds, McIntyre, Epstein & Martin and Kenneth S. Kasdan for Consumer Attorneys of California as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Verboon, Whitaker & Peter, Mark A. Milstein and Michael T. Whitaker for Southern California Apartment Owners Association as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Wolf, Rifkin & Shapiro, Leslie S. Marks and Douglas A. Lusson for League of California Homeowners as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Berding & Weil and James O. Devereaux for the Executive Council of Homeowners as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Berger & Hopkins, Jane Francis Hopkins and A. Alan Berger for the Structural Engineers Association of California as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Orbach & Huff, David M. Huff and Eric P. Weiss for Coalition of American Structural Engineers, Park Purdue Homeowners Association, Angelina Heights Homeowners Association and Silverado Oaks Homeowners Association as Amici Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Williams, Wester, Hall & Nadler and Scott A. Williams as Amici Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

Burdman & Benson and Linda Angle-Keny as Amici Curiae on behalf of Petitioners Alan O. Aas et al.

No appearance for Respondent.

Newmeyer & Dillion, Gregory L. Dillion, Timothy S. Menter, Gene M. Witkin; Lincoln, Gustafson & Cercos, Thomas J. Lincoln and Charles K. Egan for Real Parties in Interest the William Lyon Company and Lyon Communities, Inc.

Dale, Braden & Hinchcliffe and Suzanne M. Martin for Real Parties in Interest Ben F. Smith, Inc., and B & L Plastering.

Wilson, Elser, Moskowitz, Edelman & Dicker, Andrew J. Blackburn and William S. Roberts for Real Parties in Interest West Coast Sheet Metal, Inc., and Ben F. Smith, Inc.

Kring & Brown, Jeffrey A. Lake and Jon H. Van de Grift for Real Parties in Interest Ben F. Smith, Inc., and New Continental Tile & Marble Co., Inc.

Maxie Rheinheimer Stephens & Vrevich, Barry M. Vrevich, Darin L. Wessel, Kelegian & Thomas and Michael Paul Thomas for Real Party in Interest Branco Corporation.

Bullard & Olin, Robert M. Granafei and Lee H. Graham for Real Party in Interest Cal West Nurseries, Inc.

Brownwood, Rice & Zurawski and Michael F. Saydah for Real Parties in Interest C.R.E. Electric and Ghianni Corporation.

Acker, Kowalick & Whipple, Anthony H. Whipple, W. Frederck Kowalick, Linwood Warren, Jr., Catherine L. Rhodes and Tawnya L. Southern for Real Party in Interest Premier Window Products, Inc.

Farmer, Weber & Case, David Weber; The Law Office of Mark Siegel and Mark Siegel for Real Party in Interest Sun Plumbing Company, Inc.

Kolod, Wager & Gordon, Scott M. Kolod, Jerome A. Wager, Vekeno Kennedy; Law Offices of Elisa J. Nemeth and Elisa J. Nemeth for Real Party in Interest Allstate Plumbing

Cozad & Krutcik and Ronald J. Cozad for Real Party in Interest Schmid Insulation Contractors, Inc.

Berger, Kahn, Safton, Moss, Figler, Simon & Gladstone, Timothy A. Nicholson and Stephen L. Weber for Real Party in Interest Surecraft Supply, Inc.

Perkins & Miltner and Timothy E. Salter for Real Party in Interest Bowers Construction Co.

Callahan, McCune & Willis and Norma Marshal for Real Party in Interest Frank Bowers Construction

Balestreri, Pendleton & Potocki, Thomas A. Balestreri, Jr., Mary B. Pendleton, Michael M. Freeland, Maurine P. Brand; Kring and Brown and Jeffrey A. Lake for South Coast Framers, Inc., Alta Drywall, Inc., West Coast Sheet Metal and D.J. Drywall, Inc., as Amici Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Lewis, D'Amato, Brisbois & Bisgaard, Robert V. Closson, Terrell A. Quealy and Judith A. Lewis for United National Insurance Company as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

John H. Findley, Sharon L. Browne and Stephen R. McCutcheon, Jr., for Pacific Legal Foundation as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Dale, Braden & Hinchcliffe, George D. Dale, Suzanne M. Martin; Perkins & Miltner, Timothy E. Salter; and Kathryn Turner-Arsenault for the Construction Defect Defense Action Coalition as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Fred J. Hiestand for the Association for California Tort Reform as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Cox, Castle & Nicholson, Sandra C. Stewart, Jeffrey D. Masters, Debbie L. Freedman; Gray, Cary, Ware & Freidenrich and Jonathan B. Sokol for the Building Industry Legal Defense Foundation

and the California Building Industry Association as Amici Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

White, Gentes & Garcia, Timothy S. Noon and Charles R. Bongard for the Associated General Contractors of America, San Diego Chapter, Inc., as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Thelen Reid & Priest, Gary L. Fontana, Hilary N. Rowen, James A. Riddle; Craig A. Berrington and Laura L. Kersey for American Insurance Association as Amicus Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Parker & Stanbury, Jenna L. Price and Mary-Tyler Crenshaw for West Coast Sheet Metal and H & D Construction as Amici Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Morris, Polich & Purdy, Randy Koenig and Gary L. Jacobsen as Amici Curiae on behalf of Real Parties in Interest.

Gibbs, Giden, Locher & Turner, Barry C. Vaughan and Michael I. Giden for CalMat Co. as Amicus Curiae. [24 Cal.4th 632]

OPINION

WERDEGAR, J.-

In this case we are asked to decide whether homeowners and a homeowners association may recover damages in negligence from the developer, contractor and subcontractors who built their dwellings for construction defects that have not caused property damage. Plaintiffs would find an affirmative answer in the tort of "negligent interference with prospective economic advantage" described in J'Aire Corp. v. Gregory (1979) 24 Cal.3d 799, 804-805 [157 Cal.Rptr. 407, 598 P.2d 60]. Applying settled law limiting the recovery of economic losses in tort actions (Seely v. White Motor Co. (1965) 63 Cal.2d 9, 18 [45 Cal.Rptr. 17, 403 P.2d 145]), we answer the question in the negative and, thus, affirm the decision of the Court of Appeal.

I. Background

This matter comes to us on review of consolidated writ proceedings affecting two cases in the superior court. Plaintiffs in Aas v. William Lyon Co. (Super. Ct. San Diego County, 1996, No. 695611) (Aas) own the [24 Cal.4th 633] single-family homes in the Belle Fleur subdivision. Plaintiff in Provencal Community Assn. v. William Lyon Co. (Super. Ct. San Diego County, 1996, No. 694688) (Provencal) is the homeowners association responsible for managing and maintaining the Provencal condominium project. Defendants (as relevant here) include the William Lyon Company and Lyon Communities, Inc. (collectively Lyon), which served as developer and general contractor of Belle Fleur and Provencal, and the many subcontractors who participated in those projects.

Plaintiffs in each case allege their dwellings suffer from a variety of construction defects affecting virtually all components and aspects of construction. Based on these defects, plaintiffs assert causes of action for negligence, strict liability, breach of implied warranty and, in the Aas case alone, breach of contract and express warranty. Plaintiffs in both cases seek, among other things, the cost of repairing the alleged defects. Additionally, plaintiffs in Aas expressly seek damages representing the diminution in value of their residences.

Trial has not yet commenced. In pretrial proceedings, defendants in both cases moved for orders in limine excluding evidence of those alleged construction defects that have not caused property damage. (There is no claim of personal injury.) Plaintiff in Provencal responded with an offer of proof asserting that some of the alleged defects violate provisions of the applicable building codes intended to prevent harm to life, health and property. fn. 1 Plaintiff acknowledged, however, that many of the defects enumerated in defendants' motions have not actually caused property damage. The same is true in Aas. After extensive oral argument in each case, the trial [24 Cal.4th 634] court granted defendants' motions as to plaintiffs' tort claims only. fn. 2 With the court's encouragement, plaintiffs sought review of the rulings in limine by petition for writ of mandate. The Court of Appeal, after issuing an alternative writ, denied the petitions. We granted review of that decision.

In granting defendants' motions, the trial court did not create or adopt a definitive list of construction defects to be excluded at trial. Instead, the court simply excluded "evidence of [defects] ... that have not resulted in bodily injury or physical property damage, i.e., [defects causing only] 'economic loss' ...." The trial court illustrated the possible effect of its ruling with the example of "a home with no resultant damages at all, but everybody agrees that the flashing's not lapped properly under the industry standards, the [Uniform Building Code], whatever, but it hasn't resulted in any leaks; everybody agrees that the tile is overextended, that is, it doesn't have the overlap of three inches that's called for by the manufacturer; that you have a nailing pattern on the shear walls which does not comply with the applicable provision in the [Uniform Building Code], but the house is still standing and hasn't started swaying ...." The court and the parties seemed to recognize that further hearings (see generally Evid. Code, § 402 [procedure for determining preliminary facts]) would be necessary to determine which alleged defects would, and would not, be submitted to the trier of fact in connection with plaintiffs' tort claims. fn. 3

The absence of a definitive list of excluded defects is of no consequence because the issue before us is one of law. [1] While a ruling excluding evidence is not ordinarily subject to review by writ (People v. Municipal Court (Ahnemann) (1974) 12 Cal.3d 658, 660 [117 Cal.Rptr. 20, 527 P.2d 372]) and typically is reviewed for abuse of discretion on appeal (People v. Williams (1997) 16 Cal.4th 153, 197 [66 Cal.Rptr.2d 123, 940 P.2d 710]), a motion to exclude all evidence on a particular claim is subject to independent review as the functional equivalent of a common law motion for judgment on the pleadings (Edwards v. Centex Real Estate Corp. (1997) 53 Cal.App.4th 15, 26-27 [61 Cal.Rptr.2d 518]; Clemens v. American Warranty Corp. (1987) 193 Cal.App.3d 444, 451-452 [238 Cal.Rptr. 339]; see generally 6 Witkin, Cal. Procedure (4th ed. 1997) Proceedings Without Trial, [24 Cal.4th 635] § 176, pp. 589-591) or, if decided in light of evidence produced during discovery, a motion for nonsuit (Edwards v. Centex Real Estate Corp., at p. 27). Understood as a motion for judgment on the pleadings, the dispositive question is whether plaintiffs may state a cause of action for construction defects that have not caused property damage. (Cf. id. at p. 26.) Understood as a motion for nonsuit, the question is whether, disregarding conflicting evidence, indulging in every legitimate inference that may be drawn from the evidence, and viewing the record in the light most favorable to plaintiffs, evidence of construction defects that have not caused property damage will support a judgment in plaintiffs' favor. (Cf. id. at pp. 27-28; see also Casey v. Overhead Door Corp. (1999) 74 Cal.App.4th 112, 123-124 [87 Cal.Rptr.2d 603] [offer of proof may defeat nonsuit based on exclusion of evidence].) Accordingly, however we view the orders on review, the sole question before us is one of law.

II. Discussion

[2a] We turn, then, to the question at hand: May plaintiffs recover in negligence from the entities that built their homes a money judgment representing the cost to repair, or the diminished value attributable to, construction defects that have not caused property damage? Plaintiffs define construction defects as deviations from the applicable building codes or industry standards. Strict liability is not here at issue. While plaintiffs have asserted strict liability claims, they no longer argue that strict liability provides a remedy for defects that have not caused property damage. We need not address liability for construction defects that have caused property damage, if any have, because the trial court's ruling does not prevent plaintiffs from introducing evidence of such defects. Nor, finally, does the ruling prevent plaintiffs from introducing any evidence relevant to their claims for breach of contract or warranty, assuming those claims survive to trial, even if that evidence has been excluded for the purposes of plaintiffs' tort claims.

This procedural posture makes the question we address fairly narrow. The question, however, is not simple, because it arises from the nebulous and troublesome margin between tort and contract law. (See generally Erlich v. Menezes (1999) 21 Cal.4th 543, 550-551 [87 Cal.Rptr.2d 886, 981 P.2d 978]; Freeman & Mills, Inc. v. Belcher Oil Co. (1995) 11 Cal.4th 85, 105-107 [44 Cal.Rptr.2d 420, 900 P.2d 669] (conc. & dis. opn. of Mosk, J.).) Speaking very generally, tort law provides a remedy for construction defects that cause property damage or personal injury. Focusing on the conduct of persons involved in the construction process, courts in this state have found [24 Cal.4th 636] such a remedy in the law of negligence. fn. 4 Viewing the home as a product, courts have also found a tort remedy in strict products liability, fn. 5 even when the property damage consists of harm to a sound part of the home caused by another, defective part. fn. 6 For defective products and negligent services that have caused neither property damage nor personal injury, however, tort remedies have been uncertain. Any construction defect can diminish the value of a house. But the difference between price paid and value received, and deviations from standards of quality that have not resulted in property damage or personal injury, are primarily the domain of contract and warranty law or the law of fraud, rather than of negligence. In actions for negligence, a manufacturer's liability is limited to damages for physical injuries; no recovery is allowed for economic loss alone. (Seely v. White Motor Co., supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, 18.) This general principle, the so-called economic loss rule, is the primary obstacle to plaintiffs' claim. fn. 7

Plaintiffs contend the decision in J'Aire Corp. v. Gregory, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799 (J'Aire) overcomes this obstacle. According to plaintiffs, when the parties occupy the "special relationship" defined in J'Aire (id. at p. 804), [24 Cal.4th 637] there is both a duty to avoid negligently injuring a person's economic interests and a right to recover for such injury, even though unaccompanied by any injury to person or property. Before addressing J'Aire's significance and application to this case, we review the law to which J'Aire is said to constitute an exception.

Formerly, after a builder had completed a structure and the purchaser had accepted it, the builder was not liable to a third party for damages suffered because of the work's condition, even though the builder was negligent. (E.g., Fanjoy v. Seales (1865) 29 Cal. 243, 249-250; see also Hale v. Depaoli, supra, 33 Cal.2d 228, 230 [reviewing the former law].) The purchaser, of course, had remedies against the builder in contract and warranty. But injured third parties had no clear remedy until we, following the trend that began with MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. (1916) 217 N.Y 382 [111 N.E. 1050], qualified the general rule exonerating manufacturers from third party claims with an exception applicable whenever " 'the nature of a [manufactured] thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made ....' " (Kalash v. Los Angeles Ladder Co. (1934) 1 Cal.2d 229, 231-232 [34 P.2d 481], quoting MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., supra, 111 N.E. 1050, 1053.) Having already held that the manufacturers of defective ladders (Kalash v. Los Angeles Ladder Co., at pp. 231-233), elevators (Dahms v. General Elevator Co. (1932) 214 Cal. 733, 737-742 [7 P.2d 1013]), and tires (Nebelung v. Norman (1939) 14 Cal.2d 647, 654 [96 P.2d 327]) could be liable to persons not in contractual privity with them yet foreseeably injured by their products, we easily applied the same rule to someone responsible for part of a house, i.e., a defective railing (Hale v. Depaoli, at pp. 230-232).

We first recognized a remedy in the law of negligence for construction defects causing property damage, as opposed to personal injury, in Stewart v. Cox, supra, 55 Cal.2d 857. There, we upheld a homeowner's judgment against a subcontractor who had negligently applied concrete to the inside of a swimming pool, thereby causing the release of water that damaged the pool, lot and house. In our opinion we noted, and seemingly were influenced by, the " 'decisions ... plac[ing] building contractors on the same footing as sellers of goods, and ... [holding] them to the general standard of reasonable care for the protection of anyone who may foreseeably be endangered by the negligence, even after acceptance of the work.' " (Id. at p. 862, quoting Prosser, Torts (2d ed. 1955) pp. 517-519.) The deciding factor in finding liability, however, appears to have been our own then recent decision in Biakanja v. Irving (1958) 49 Cal.2d 647 [320 P.2d 16, 65 A.L.R.2d 1358] (Biakanja). In Biakanja, we had held that the intended beneficiary of a failed testamentary gift could recover damages from a [24 Cal.4th 638] notary public who, practicing law without a license, negligently prepared the will and failed to have it properly solemnized. Because Biakanja is the acknowledged basis for the later decision in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804, the case on which plaintiffs here primarily rely, it will be discussed in more detail later (at p. 643, post). At this point, it suffices to note that Biakanja held that the negligent performance of a contractual obligation, resulting in damage to the property or economic interests of a person not in privity, could support recovery if the defendant was under a duty to protect those interests. (Biakanja, at pp. 648-650.) "The determination whether in a specific case the defendant will be held liable to a third person not in privity," we wrote, "is a matter of policy and involves the balancing of various factors ...." (Id. at p. 650.) fn. 8 Applying those factors to the negligent concrete subcontractor in Stewart v. Cox, supra, 55 Cal.2d 857), we determined that he should not be exempted from liability proximately caused by his negligence. His work, we explained, was specifically intended to affect the plaintiffs; damage to their property was foreseeable if the work were negligently done; and serious damage actually occurred. (Id. at p. 863.)

Two years later, we again applied Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, to uphold a judgment for property damage caused by negligent residential construction. (Sabella v. Wisler, supra, 59 Cal.2d 21, 29 (Sabella).) The defendant had built a house and offered it for sale to the general public. As it turned out, the defendant's negligent preparation of the lot, in combination with a subcontractor's careless plumbing work, later caused leaks, subsidence and damage to the house. The purchasers sued for negligence. The builder, arguing against the imposition of tort liability, sought to distinguish the recent decision in Stewart v. Cox, supra, 55 Cal.2d 857 (Stewart), on the ground "that damage to property other than the swimming pool [in Stewart] was foreseeable, [whereas] ... the only harm foreseeable [in Sabella] ... was damage to the house itself." (Sabella, at p. 29.) We rejected the asserted distinction because we had already determined "in the Stewart case that the liability of a contractor should be determined by the consideration and weighing of the various factors bearing upon liability [i.e., the factors set out in Biakanja at page 650], rather than by resort to special rules or distinctions." (Sabella, at p. 29.)

In the years following Sabella, supra, 59 Cal.2d 21, the law governing tort remedies for construction defects diverged into two distinct theories: (1) [24 Cal.4th 639] strict products liability; and (2) the theory of negligence outlined in Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, and further developed in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799.

We first embraced the doctrine of strict products liability in Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. (1963) 59 Cal.2d 57 [27 Cal.Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897, 13 A.L.R.3d 1049], just a week after deciding Sabella, supra, 59 Cal.2d 21. A few years later, the court in Kriegler v. Eichler Homes, Inc., supra, 269 Cal.App.2d 224 (Kriegler), applied the new tort to mass-produced homes, reasoning that in "today's society, there are no meaningful distinctions between [the] mass production and sale of homes and the mass production and sale of automobiles and that the pertinent overriding policy considerations are the same." (Id. at p. 227; see also Avner v. Longridge Estates, supra, 272 Cal.App.2d 607, 609-615 [examining and following Kriegler].) The relevant policy considerations, the Kriegler court explained, were the average home buyer's reliance on the builder's skill and implied representations of fitness, and the public interest in assigning the cost of foreseeable injuries to the developer who created the danger. (Kriegler, at p. 228; cf. Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc., at pp. 63-64.)

While these decisions applied the doctrine of strict liability to mass-produced homes, fn. 9 they did not create a remedy for defects that have not caused property damage or personal injury. Whatever the product, whether homes or automobiles, strict liability affords a remedy only when the defective product causes property damage or personal injury. The tort does not support recovery of damages representing the lost benefit of a bargain, such as the cost of repairing a defective product or compensation for its diminished value. We explained this principle in Seely v. White Motor Co., supra, 63 Cal.2d 9 (Seely). "The distinction that the law has drawn between tort recovery for physical injuries and warranty recovery for economic loss," we wrote, "is not arbitrary and does not rest on the 'luck' of one plaintiff in having an accident causing physical injury. The distinction rests, rather, on an understanding of the nature of the responsibility a manufacturer must undertake in distributing his products." (Id. at p. 18.) A manufacturer "can appropriately be held liable for physical injuries caused by defects by requiring his goods to match a standard of safety," but not "for the level of performance" of its products unless the manufacturer "agrees that the product was designed to meet the consumer's demands." (Ibid.) Similarly, "[a] [24 Cal.4th 640] consumer should not be charged at the will of the manufacturer with bearing the risk of physical injury when he buys a product on the market. He can, however, be fairly charged with the risk that the product will not match his economic expectations unless the manufacturer agrees that it will." (Ibid.)

Applying these principles, we concluded in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, that the plaintiff could not recover in strict liability or negligence for the cost of repairing a defective truck or for business income lost because the truck could not make deliveries. "Even in actions for negligence," we wrote, "a manufacturer's liability is limited to damages for physical injuries and there is no recovery for economic loss alone." (Id. at p. 18.) Plaintiffs argue that this statement, and Seely's other observations about damages for negligence, were dictum because the court actually upheld, on a breach of express warranty theory, an award of damages representing the purchase price of the truck and lost profits. (Id. at p. 13.) Indeed, the statement can be seen either as dictum or as part of the court's rationale for permitting the Seely plaintiff to recover his economic losses in warranty rather than in tort. Which label we attach to the statement is of no consequence. This is because the principle articulated in Seely has by critical examination and application in subsequent cases been confirmed as law. Courts routinely apply Seely in strict liability and negligence cases alike to distinguish recoverable damages for physical injury from unrecoverable damages representing the benefit of a contractual bargain.

In Zamora v. Shell Oil Co. (1997) 55 Cal.App.4th 204, 208-211 [63 Cal.Rptr.2d 762], for example, homeowners were not allowed to recover in negligence or strict liability for the cost of replacing water pipes known to be defective, but which had not yet leaked. In Fieldstone v. Briggs Plumbing Products, Inc. (1997) 54 Cal.App.4th 357, 363-367 [62 Cal.Rptr.2d 701], a strict liability case, a general contractor was not awarded the cost of replacing installed sinks that rusted and chipped prematurely, because no other property had been damaged. In San Francisco Unified School Dist. v. W.R. Grace & Co. (1995) 37 Cal.App.4th 1318, 1327-1330 [44 Cal.Rptr.2d 305], a public school district could not state a cause of action in negligence or strict liability based on the presence of asbestos products in its buildings, when the products had not contaminated the buildings by releasing friable asbestos. In Sacramento Regional Transit Dist. v. Grumman Flxible (1984) 158 Cal.App.3d 289, 293-298 [204 Cal.Rptr. 736], the court held a transportation district could not recover in negligence or strict liability for the cost of repairing defective bus parts that had not caused further damage. "We believe," the court explained, that "the line between physical injury to property and economic loss reflects the line of demarcation between tort theory and contract theory." (Id. at p. 294.) As one final example, significant [24 Cal.4th 641] because of its similarity to the case before us, the court in Casey v. Overhead Door Corp., supra, 74 Cal.App.4th 112, 123-124, a negligence case based on defective windows in mass-produced housing, relied on Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, to uphold an order excluding testimony about damages representing the cost to replace defective windows that had not caused property damage and a nonsuit based on that order. "A consumer," the court explained, "may not recover economic loss damages against the manufacturer of a defective product in a cause of action for strict liability or negligence. (Seely[, at p.] 18 ....) [¶] Since plaintiffs could not recover economic losses [i.e., the cost of repairing and replacing the defective windows], testimony on that item of damages would have been irrelevant." (Casey v. Overhead Door Corp., at p. 123.)

Over time, the concept of recoverable physical injury or property damage expanded to include damage to one part of a product caused by another, defective part. Examples include cases in which poorly prepared lots subsided, damaging the houses built thereon (Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 615, 616-623), in which defective bottle caps ruined wine (International Knights of Wine, Inc. v. Ball Corp. (1980) 110 Cal.App.3d 1001, 1003-1005 [168 Cal.Rptr. 301] (lead opn. of Roth, P. J.); see also id. at p. 1008 (conc. opn. of Fleming, J.)), and in which an unknown defect in an engine compartment started a fire that destroyed the entire automobile (Gherna v. Ford Motor Co. (1966) 246 Cal.App.2d 639, 644, 649-651 [55 Cal.Rptr. 94]). Indeed, the decision in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, suggested these results by intimating that further damage to a truck caused by a manufacturing defect might be recoverable in strict liability or negligence, even though the cost of repairing the original defect was not. (Id. at p. 19; see generally Stearman v. Centex Homes, at pp. 616-623 [extensively discussing the point].)

Plaintiffs argue no requirement of property damage exists, at least in the context of residential construction. The cases discussed above do not support the argument. They go only so far as to hold that property damage compensable in tort can exist when a defective component damages other parts of the same product. Plaintiffs attempt to find a more favorable rule in the two older cases noted above, Stewart, supra, 55 Cal.2d 857, and Sabella, supra, 59 Cal.2d 21. (See ante, at p. 637 et seq.) Those cases, however, do not establish the rule plaintiffs seek. We held in Stewart that the plaintiff homeowners could recover from a subcontractor for damages to their house and lot caused by water escaping from a negligently built swimming pool. (Stewart, at p. 860.) No question was presented of a defect without resulting property damage. Likewise, Sabella concerned a house damaged by the subsidence of an improperly compacted lot. (Sabella, at pp. 23-27.) Today, [24 Cal.4th 642] after Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, the plaintiffs in those cases would argue that defective components of the property (in Stewart the concrete in the swimming pool, and in Sabella the lot) had damaged other components, including the houses. (See, e.g., Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 622-623.) Because Stewart and Sabella clearly involved property damage, we find nothing in those decisions to cast doubt on the requirement of property damage later articulated in Seely and the many cases following Seely. (See ante, at p. 639 et seq.) fn. 10

Plaintiffs also contend the court in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, was concerned exclusively with commercial losses or lost business profits, rather than economic losses in a broader sense. To the contrary, the court in Seely was unmistakably concerned not just with lost profits but also with the fundamental difference between, on the one hand, the consumer's contractual interest in having a product of the expected, bargained-for value and quality, and, on the other hand, the consumer's tort interest in not suffering property damage or personal injury due to negligence in the manufacturing process. Chief Justice Traynor could not have articulated the point more clearly: "A consumer should not be charged at the will of the manufacturer with bearing the risk of physical injury when he buys a product on the market. He can, however, be fairly charged with the risk that the product will not match his economic expectations unless the manufacturer agrees that it will. Even in actions for negligence, a manufacturer's liability is limited to damages for physical injuries and there is no recovery for economic loss alone." (Id. at p. 18.) Certainly the opinion also speaks of the manufacturer not being "held for the level of performance of his products in the consumer's business unless he agrees that the product was designed to meet the consumer's demands." (Ibid., italics added.) After all, the immediate factual context of the case before the court included a claim for lost profits. (Id. at p. 13.) But to read this court's seminal decision in Seely as speaking only to claims for lost profits, and not more generally to the distinction between tort and contract, is to mistake the particular application for the governing principle.

An uncertain number of plaintiffs purchased their houses directly from defendant Lyon. As to these plaintiffs, it is argued, privity of contract offers [24 Cal.4th 643] an additional reason for rejecting any requirement of property damage in an action for negligence based on construction defects. It has been said that "[a] contract to perform services gives rise to a duty of care which requires that such services be performed in a competent and reasonable manner" and that "[a] negligent failure to do so may be both a breach of contract and a tort." (North American Chemical Co. v. Superior Court (1997) 59 Cal.App.4th 764, 774 [69 Cal.Rptr.2d 466].) Therefore, plaintiffs argue, defendant Lyon's negligent breach of contractual duties owed directly to plaintiffs to deliver homes in compliance with the applicable building codes is a tort, for which plaintiffs may recover "the amount which will compensate for all the detriment proximately caused thereby ...." (Civ. Code, § 3333.)

The argument is not persuasive. [3], [2b] A person may not ordinarily recover in tort for the breach of duties that merely restate contractual obligations. Instead, " '[c]ourts will generally enforce the breach of a contractual promise through contract law, except when the actions that constitute the breach violate a social policy that merits the imposition of tort remedies.' " (Erlich v. Menezes 21 Cal.4th 543, 552, quoting Freeman & Mills, Inc. v. Belcher Oil Co., supra, 11 Cal.4th 85, 107 (conc. & dis. opn. of Mosk, J.).) This court recently rejected the argument that the negligent performance of a construction contract, without more, justifies an award of tort damages. (Erlich v. Menezes at pp. 550-554 [reversing an award of damages for emotional distress for negligent construction].) In so doing, however, we reiterated that conduct amounting to a breach of contract becomes tortious when it also violates a duty independent of the contract arising from principles of tort law. (Id. at p. 551.) The strict liability and negligence cases discussed above, which hold the builders of homes liable for construction defects causing property damage, may be understood as recognizing such an independent duty. But that duty is limited by the rule in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, 18, which bars recovery of economic damages representing the lost benefit of a bargain.

We noted earlier that the law of construction defects after Sabella, supra, 59 Cal.2d 21, diverged into two theories: strict products liability, which we have discussed, and the tort recognized in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799. Apart from the arguments that Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, does not apply to negligent construction (see ante, at pp. 641-642) and that plaintiffs in privity may recover tort damages for breach of contract (see ante, at p. 642), plaintiffs base their claim exclusively on J'Aire and cases following that decision.

J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, as mentioned, relied on this court's 1958 decision in Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647. In Biakanja, we held that a [24 Cal.4th 644] defendant's negligent performance of a contractual obligation resulting in damage to the property or economic interests of a person not in privity could support recovery if the defendant was under a duty to protect those interests. The court articulated a case-by-case test for identifying such a duty. "The determination whether in a specific case the defendant will be held liable to a third person not in privity," we wrote, "is a matter of policy and involves the balancing of various factors ...." (Biakanja, at p. 650.) The six factors were: "[1] the extent to which the transaction was intended to affect the plaintiff, [2] the foreseeability of harm to him, [3] the degree of certainty that the plaintiff suffered injury, [4] the closeness of the connection between the defendant's conduct and the injury suffered, [5] the moral blame attached to the defendant's conduct, and [6] the policy of preventing future harm." (Ibid.) In concluding the defendant notary owed a duty to an intended beneficiary not to mishandle the will's drafting and solemnization, we attached particular importance to the fact that the " 'end and aim' " of the notary's service to the testator was "to provide for the passing of [the] estate to [the] plaintiff" (ibid.), and to the high impropriety of, and need to prevent, the unlicensed practice of law (id. at p. 651).

Twenty-one years later, the court in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, applied the Biakanja (supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, 650) factors to conclude that the tenant of a building used as a restaurant could state a cause of action for negligence against a renovation contractor hired by the building's owner for business income lost when the contractor "fail[ed] to complete the project with due diligence." (J'Aire, at pp. 802, 804-805.) Applying the Biakanja factors, the court held that a "special relationship" (J'Aire, at p. 804) permitting recovery of economic losses (i.e., the relationship defined by the Biakanja test) existed between the contractor and the tenant. The court dismissed concerns that such a theory of recovery would threaten liability, out of proportion to fault, for remote consequences and speculative damages. (J'Aire, at pp. 807-808.) In the court's view, the Biakanja factors, in combination with "ordinary principles of tort law such as proximate cause," were "fully adequate to limit recovery" of purely economic damages "without the drastic consequence of an absolute rule which bars recovery in all such cases." (J'Aire, at p. 808.)

The lower courts have applied the theory of liability articulated in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, in a wide variety of cases. To mention just a few, courts have relied on J'Aire to assess a chemical manufacturer's claim against a transportation company for business losses caused by the contamination of its product in shipment (North American Chemical Co. v. Superior Court, supra, 59 Cal.App.4th 764, 781-785); a dairy's claim against the manufacturer of an allegedly defective milking machine for lost profits and [24 Cal.4th 645] property damage (Ott v. Alfa-Laval Agri, Inc. (1995) 31 Cal.App.4th 1439, 1448-1457 [37 Cal.Rptr.2d 790]); a construction lender/mortgagee's claim against a builder for construction defects (Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., supra, 185 Cal.App.3d 211, 223-226); an abalone packer's claim for lost profits against the manufacturer of unusable cans (Ales-Peratis Foods Internat., Inc. v. American Can Co. (1985) 164 Cal.App.3d 277, 284-290 [209 Cal.Rptr. 917]); and real estate investors' claims for the cost of repairing construction defects in an apartment building (Huang v. Garner, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404, 422-425; see post, at p. 648 et seq.).

The lower courts have also expanded upon J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799. While the court in J'Aire purported only to address duties owed to persons not in contractual privity with the defendant (id. at p. 804), courts subsequently have applied J'Aire to cases in which privity did exist. These courts have concluded that "the reasoning of J'Aire is wholly incompatible with a limitation of the cause of action to those instances in which the plaintiff and defendant are not in privity ...." (Ott v. Alfa-Laval Agri, Inc., supra, 31 Cal.App.4th 1439, 1448; see also North American Chemical Co. v. Superior Court, supra, 59 Cal.App.4th 764, 783; Pisano v. American Leasing (1983) 146 Cal.App.3d 194, 197 [194 Cal.Rptr. 77] [both applying J'Aire in cases apparently involving privity].)

Plaintiffs contend that J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, when it applies, displaces the general rule (Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, 18) that damages are not recoverable for product defects that have not caused property damage. fn. 11 Plaintiffs base the contention on the following statement in J'Aire: "Where the risk of harm is foreseeable, ... an injury to the plaintiff's economic interests should not go uncompensated merely because it was unaccompanied by any injury to his person or property." (J'Aire, at p. 805.) The validity of the orders on review depends largely on the significance of that statement. Paraphrasing it, one might ask the dispositive question this way: Does the law of negligence protect plaintiffs' economic interests in having houses that fully comply with the building codes, measured by the cost of repairs or diminished value associated with noncompliance, even though the asserted harm to those interests is unaccompanied by any injury to person or property? [24 Cal.4th 646]

To apply the multifactored balancing test set out in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804, tends to involve a court in making fairly subjective judgments. In this case, however, a relatively objective obstacle to plaintiffs' claim appears in factor (3), which looks to "the degree of certainty that the plaintiff suffered injury ...." (Ibid.) Construction defects that have not ripened into property damage, or at least into involuntary out-ofpocket losses, do not comfortably fit the definition of " 'appreciable harm' " —an essential element of a negligence claim. (Davies v. Krasna (1975) 14 Cal.3d 502, 513 [121 Cal.Rptr. 705, 535 P.2d 1161, 79 A.L.R.3d 807]; see San Francisco Unified School Dist. v. W.R. Grace & Co., supra, 37 Cal.App.4th 1318, 1327-1331 [the presence of asbestos products in buildings did not, prior to the release of friable asbestos, constitute actual and appreciable harm under Davies v. Krasna]; Zamora v. Shell Oil Co., supra, 55 Cal.App.4th 204, 208-211 [finding no cognizable damage in the cost of replacing defective pipes that had not yet leaked].) The breach of a duty causing only speculative harm or the threat of future harm does not normally suffice to create a cause of action. (Davies v. Krasna, at p. 513.) For the same reason—because the physical harm traditionally compensable in tort is lacking—to ask in the words of factor (2) whether the harm to plaintiffs was "foreseeab[le]" (J'Aire, at p. 804) simply begs the question: What harm?

Plaintiffs argue that the cost of repairs is an accepted measure of damage for construction defects and that plaintiffs could make the cost of repairs certain within the meaning of J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804, by voluntarily repairing defects and obtaining a receipt for money spent. This confuses the measurement of alleged damages with the ability of particular facts to support a tort action. To say that one's house needs repairs costing a certain amount is not necessarily to say that one has suffered the type of harm cognizable in tort, as opposed to contract. Plaintiffs also argue that "the degree of certainty that the plaintiff suffered injury" (ibid.) is merely a factor to be balanced with the other factors set out in J'Aire for determining a person's liability for negligently injuring another's economic interests. We do not believe, however, that the J'Aire court intended to dispense with the rule that appreciable, nonspeculative, present injury is an essential element of a tort cause of action. (Davies v. Krasna, supra, 14 Cal.3d 502, 513; cf. Romano v. Rockwell Internat., Inc. (1996) 14 Cal.4th 479, 500-503 [59 Cal.Rptr.2d 20, 926 P.2d 1114] [plaintiff suffered appreciable harm sufficient to support a tort claim for wrongful discharge upon actual termination rather than upon prospective notification].) Lacking that fundamental prerequisite to a tort claim, it is difficult to imagine what other factors, singly or in combination, might justify the court in finding liability.

Turning to the other factors, we find no adequate justification. We may assume for argument's sake that the conduct of a person engaged in construction is "intended to affect" all foreseeable purchasers of the property. [24 Cal.4th 647] (J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804 [factor (1)]; see also Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., supra, 185 Cal.App.3d 211, 224; Huang v. Garner, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404, 423-424; Cooper v. Jevne, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860, 869.) We may also assume that a sufficiently "close[] connection [exists] between ... defendant's conduct" and the alleged defects. (J'Aire, at p. 804 [factor (4)].) Also, while some "moral blame" arguably "attach[es]" to many deviations from the building codes (ibid. [factor (5)]), the degree of blame would appear to depend upon the nature of the deviation. Thus, even if significant moral blame inheres in negligent construction creating a risk of likely structural failure leading to a notice of abatement (Huang v. Garner, at p. 424 & fn. 13), we may still reasonably assign reduced moral blame to less serious defects not presenting that degree of risk, and to such flaws as doors that are out of plumb, discolored drain stoppers, and inoperable garbage disposals, to take a few examples from this case. Factor (6), the last factor, looks to "the policy of preventing future harm." (J'Aire, at p. 804.) Certainly, as plaintiff in Provencal noted in its offer of proof, the express purpose of the building codes is to "provide minimum standards to safeguard life or limb, health, property and public welfare ...." (U. Bldg. Code, § 102, Cal. Code Regs., tit. 24, former § 2-102.) Plaintiffs have not shown, however, that any of the alleged defects actually poses a serious risk of harm to person or property. To say, as plaintiffs do, that the purpose of construction standards for shear walls is to "minimize property damage and personal injury in the event of seismic and wind forces," is not to say that any given defect is sufficiently grave to pose a realistic risk of structural failure. In conclusion, applying the J'Aire factors, we do not find they justify a broad rule permitting recovery of repair costs unaccompanied by property damage or personal injury.

Plaintiffs contend precedent requires a different result. "[E]very reported decision applying the J'Aire[, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804] factors to residential construction," they argue, "has allowed the recovery of economic loss," meaning, in this context, the cost of repairing defects that have not caused property damage. The decisions plaintiffs cite, however, do not strongly support their position. The courts in Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., supra, 185 Cal.App.3d 211, and Cooper v. Jevne, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860 (which predated J'Aire and relied on Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647), simply held that the plaintiffs in those cases had stated causes of action and, thus, reversed judgments of dismissal entered after demurrers were erroneously sustained. The court in Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., did not address the distinction between economic damages and physical harm; no such issue was raised. The court in Cooper v. Jevne held that the plaintiff homeowners had stated a cause of action in negligence against the architects of their houses, with whom the plaintiffs were not in privity. As damages for [24 Cal.4th 648] their negligence cause of action, the plaintiffs sought the cost of repairs, compensation for lost use and income, and "[p]ast and future damage to personal property," among other things. (Cooper v. Jevne, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d at p. 867, fn. 2.) That the plaintiffs had stated a cause of action was established by the architects' concession that their professional liability to the plaintiffs not in privity of contract with them extended to property damage. (Id. at p. 868, fn. 3.) For this reason, and because the question was not before the court on demurrer, the court's conclusion that Seely's economic loss rule does not apply to professional negligence claims (Cooper v. Jevne, at p. 869) is dictum. The court, in any event, acknowledged Seely's continuing relevance to the liability of a manufacturer for product defects. (Cooper v. Jevne, at p. 868.) Furthermore, unlike the judgments of dismissal on appeal in Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., and Cooper v. Jevne, the instant rulings in limine do not preclude plaintiffs from presenting to the trier of fact whatever claims for property damage may exist. fn. 12

Plaintiffs place particular emphasis on Huang v. Garner, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404 (Huang). The court in that case relied on J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, to reverse a nonsuit for the defendants (a developer and a contractor) on the plaintiff real estate investors' claims for the cost of repairing defects in an apartment building. Some of the alleged defects had caused property damage, and some had not. (Huang, at pp. 419-425.) The Huang [24 Cal.4th 649] court found the "certainty" of injury required by J'Aire (at p. 804) in plaintiffs' duty to comply with a notice of abatement citing likely structural failure and requiring specific repairs. (Huang, at p. 424 & fn. 13.) Yet Huang's analysis is not entirely satisfactory because other alleged construction defects in that case had neither caused property damage nor been cited in the notice of abatement. (Compare id. at pp. 419-420 [summary of alleged defects] with id. at p. 424, fn. 13 [order of abatement].) Even accepting for the sake of argument the Huang court's suggestion that a notice of abatement might suffice to convert repair costs into tort damages, the decision offers no adequate explanation for permitting the plaintiffs, consistently with Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, to recover repair costs for the other defects that had neither appeared in the notice nor resulted in property damage. Accordingly, we disapprove Huang to the extent it is inconsistent with the views set out in this opinion.

Whether viewed as part of the test set out in J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, 804, or as an independent argument for extending tort liability, the "policy of preventing future harm" (ibid. [factor (6)]) is probably plaintiffs' strongest argument. In some sense, that policy might be served by a rule of tort liability making builders, in effect, the insurers of building code compliance, even as to defects that have not caused property damage or personal injury. Moreover, as plaintiffs argue, to require builders to pay to correct defects as soon as they are detected rather than after property damage or personal injury has occurred might be less expensive. On the other hand, such a rule would likely increase the cost of housing by an unforeseeable amount as builders raised prices to cover the increased risk of liability. Such a rule should also be unnecessary to the extent buyers timely enforce their contract, warranty and inspection rights, and to the extent building authorities vigorously enforce the applicable codes for new construction.

The Chief Justice, in his concurring and dissenting opinion, proposes to resolve these conflicting policy considerations with a complex new rule of tort liability (1) barring recovery for minor defects and building code violations that have not caused personal injury or property damage; (2) permitting recovery for serious defects and code violations posing a significant risk of death, personal injury, or considerable property damage; and (3) requiring court-supervised disbursement of all damages awarded to ensure that repairs are actually made. (Conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., post, at pp. 653-654, 671, 672-673.)

The proposal entails serious difficulties. First among these is that the Chief Justice, while asserting that our holding "offends ... established common law" (conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., post, at p. 653), nevertheless "agree[s] with the majority to the extent it declines to allow recovery in [24 Cal.4th 650] negligence for the cost of repairing construction defects that pose no significant risk of serious personal injury or property damage" (id. at p. 671). As we have explained, whether the economic loss rule applies depends on whether property damage has occurred rather than on the possible gravity of damages that have not yet occurred. While the Chief Justice rejects our understanding of the economic loss rule, his concurring and dissenting opinion offers no other rationale for denying recovery for minor defects. Although the Chief Justice advances policy considerations to justify providing recovery for serious defects, his narrow conception of the economic loss rule as applicable only to commercial losses (conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., post, at p. 657; but see this opn., ante, at p. 642) would seem to compel the court to permit recovery for minor defects, as well. In short, the proposed rule lacks coherence.

The Legislature, whose lawmaking power is not encumbered by precedent, is free to adopt a rule like that proposed in the Chief Justice's concurring and dissenting opinion. Yet even if the proposed rule could plausibly be defended as a logical development of the common law, and thus appropriate for judicial rather than legislative promulgation, the rule's shortcomings would counsel its rejection. The distinction between serious and minor defects has a superficial theoretical appeal that evaporates in practice. Amicus curiae Structural Engineers Association of California, which supports plaintiffs' position in this court, aptly demonstrates that almost any building code violation can, under the right set of assumptions and circumstances, be considered serious. fn. 13 "[T]here is no mechanism at this level to separate life safety defects from cosmetic defects," amicus curiae argues; such questions, in its view, are "better left to the trier of fact after a complete presentation of expert testimony on both sides." If experts claim to be unable before trial to rule out any building code violations as trivial, then a rule looking to the potential seriousness of possible property damage, rather than the existence of actual damage, is very likely to frustrate the pretrial disposition of claims based on trivial defects. Such a rule, by forcing judges [24 Cal.4th 651] to attempt to predict the likelihood that any given defect will cause property damage and, if so, its likely seriousness, will make it difficult for them to screen out trivial claims as a matter of law. Because, moreover, the rule invites a speculative inquiry, any pretrial dispositions based thereon are likely to be inconsistent fn. 14 and challenged on appeal. In short, the practical effect of a rule permitting recovery for "serious" defects only, however well intentioned, would likely be to insulate from demurrer and summary judgment virtually all complaints containing allegations of building code violations.

The Chief Justice's suggestion that courts should supervise the disbursement of tort damages (conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., post, at pp. 663-664, 672-673) highlights a final difficulty with the rule he proposes. Ordinarily, nothing compels a successful plaintiff to spend money recovered in construction defect litigation on repairs. Indeed, plaintiffs in Aas expressly seek in their complaint, in addition to the cost of repairs, damages representing the "diminution in value" of their residences. fn. 15 The possibility that tort damages will not actually be spent on repairs, defendants contend, weakens the argument that imposing liability for construction defects without resulting damage will serve the policy goal of improving the state's housing stock. [24 Cal.4th 652] The rule the Chief Justice proposes would address this concern by requiring court-supervised disbursement of all damages awarded to ensure that repairs are actually made. (Conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., at pp. 672-673.) Again, while such a rule might be appropriate as legislation, to reconcile it with the traditional role of the judiciary is very difficult, indeed. While there have been exceptions, courts do not ordinarily tell successful plaintiffs how to spend their tort recoveries. fn. 16 That judicial control over the proceeds might be necessary to render the proposed liability rule fair suggests the rule tries the limits of our power to expound the common law.

In our view, the many considerations of social policy this case implicates, rather than justifying the imposition of liability for construction defects that have not caused harm of the sort traditionally compensable in tort (Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, 18), serve instead to emphasize that certain choices are better left to the Legislature. That body has at its disposal a wider range of options and superior access to information about the social costs and benefits of each. "Legislatures, in making such policy decisions, have the ability to gather empirical evidence, solicit the advice of experts, and hold hearings at which all interested parties may present evidence and express their views ...." (Foley v. Interactive Data Corp. (1988) 47 Cal.3d 654, 694, fn. 31 [254 Cal.Rptr. 211, 765 P.2d 373]; see also Moore v. Regents of University of California (1990) 51 Cal.3d 120, 147 [271 Cal.Rptr. 146, 793 P.2d 479, 16 A.L.R. 4th 903].) fn. 17

Home buyers in California already enjoy protection under contract and warranty law for enforcement of builders' and sellers' obligations; under the [24 Cal.4th 653] law of negligence and strict liability for acts and omissions that cause property damage or personal injury; under the law of fraud for misrepresentations about the property's condition; and an exceptionally long 10-year statute of limitations for latent construction defects (Code Civ. Proc., § 337.15). While the Legislature may add whatever additional protections it deems appropriate, the facts of this case do not present a sufficiently compelling reason to preempt the legislative process with a judicially created rule of tort liability.

III. Disposition

The judgment of the Court of Appeal is affirmed.

Kennard, J., Baxter, J., Chin, J., and Brown, J., concurred.

CONCURRING AND DISSENTING OPINION:

GEORGE, C. J.-

Other courts faced with the question we address today have asked: Why should a homeowner have to wait for a personal tragedy to occur in order to recover damages to repair known serious building code safety defects caused by negligent construction? (E.g., Council of Co-Owners v. Whiting-Turner (1986) 308 Md. 18 [517 A.2d 336, 345].) Perhaps because those courts have addressed the matter from such a commonsense perspective, they have reached conclusions very different from that adopted by the majority in the present case. In determining that a negligently constructed home must first collapse or be gutted by fire before a homeowner may sue in tort to collect costs necessary to repair negligently constructed shear walls or fire walls, the majority today embraces a ruling that offends both established common law and basic common sense.

In this case, we must decide whether, under California law, when a building contractor has breached its duty of care by constructing a home that violates significant building safety code provisions that are designed to protect health and safety, and the homeowner has discovered these safety code violations before a personal injury has occurred or before the home has suffered any physical property damage, the homeowner, in a negligence action, may recover those costs of repair that a reasonably prudent homeowner would incur under the circumstances, or whether the "economic loss" rule of Seely v. White Motor Co. (1965) 63 Cal.2d 9 [45 Cal.Rptr. 17, 403 P.2d 145] (Seely)—a rule designed to limit recovery of such business-related losses as lost profits or lost commercial opportunities—bars a homeowner from recovering such repair costs in a negligence action.

I agree with the majority that many if not most of the defects listed in the underlying complaints—items such as "discolored drain stoppers, and inoperable garbage disposals" (maj. opn., ante, at p. 647)—do not pose a risk of [24 Cal.4th 654] personal injury or property damage sufficient to warrant recognition of a right to recover repair costs in negligence, and hence to this extent I concur in the judgment. At the same time, however, I conclude, consistent with California authority and with the courts of other jurisdictions, that a homeowner may maintain a cause of action in negligence to recover the costs of correcting the most significant building safety code violations conceded in this litigation (e.g., shear walls that were improperly constructed or fastened and that put the structure at risk of collapse during high winds or an earthquake; improperly constructed fire walls that would allow a fire to spread rapidly from one part of the structure to another), but that have not yet manifested themselves in physical damage to the property or resulted in personal injury. To the extent the majority bars such recovery, I dissent. Recognizing a right to recover costs to repair the serious safety defects here at issue—defects that pose a risk of serious personal injury or considerable property damage—would not require us to break new ground; all of the established factors traditionally used to assess building defect cases militate strongly in favor of such relief. And allowing such limited recovery also best comports with rational economic policy, as well as common sense: It obviously is preferable to pay a relatively few dollars at an early date to correct a serious safety risk that may cost millions or billions of dollars to redress if the inhabitants of dwellings are forced to wait for disaster to strike and for death, personal injury, or physical property damage to ensue.

I.

A.

In Connor v. Great Western Sav. & Loan Assn. (1968) 69 Cal.2d 850 [73 Cal.Rptr. 369, 447 P.2d 609, 39 A.L.R.3d 224] (Connor), Chief Justice Roger Traynor, upholding a negligence action by homeowners against a lending institution that had financially backed and extensively controlled a new housing development, observed that "the usual buyer of a home is ill-equipped with experience or financial means to discern ... structural defects." (Id., at p. 867.) The Connor opinion rejected as "conjectural claims" assertions that recognizing a duty on the part of the defendant to the homeowners would "increase housing costs, drive marginal builders out of business, and decrease total housing at a time of great need" (ibid.), observing that "[i]n any event, there is no enduring social utility in fostering the construction of seriously defective homes. If reliable construction is the norm, the recognition of a duty on the part of tract financiers to home buyers should not materially increase the cost of housing or drive small builders out of business." (Id., at pp. 867-868, fn. omitted.) Finally, the court observed in Connor that "a home is not only a major investment for the usual buyer but [24 Cal.4th 655] also the only shelter he has. Hence it becomes doubly important to protect him against structural defects that could prove beyond his capacity to remedy." (Id., at p. 867, italics added.)

As implied in the above italicized observation, tort law offers the most effective, and often the only realistic, nonstatutory remedy for consumers in this area. Although technically available to at least some of the plaintiffs in this and similar litigation, contract or warranty claims in this setting are difficult to prove and to enforce, and our decisions have recognized that problems with privity, disclaimers inserted into contracts by developers or contractors, and notice requirements, often frustrate the ability to recover on contract or warranty theories. (See, e.g., Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. (1963) 59 Cal.2d 57, 61 [27 Cal.Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897, 13 A.L.R.3d 1049] [notice requirement under implied warranty is a " 'booby-trap for the unwary' " and " 'consumer[s are] seldom "steeped in the business practice which justifies the rule" ' "]; Anthony v. Kelsey-Hayes Co. (1972) 25 Cal.App.3d 442, 448 [102 Cal.Rptr. 113] [lack of privity defeats implied warranty claim].) As observed in Kriegler v. Eichler Homes, Inc. (1969) 269 Cal.App.2d 224, 228 [74 Cal.Rptr. 749] (Kriegler), because the purchaser of a " 'development house' " " 'has no real competency to inspect on his own, his actual examination is, in the nature of things, largely superficial, and his opportunity for obtaining meaningful protective changes in the conveyancing documents prepared by the builder vendor is negligible....' [¶] 'Buyers of mass produced development homes are not on an equal footing with the builder vendors and are no more able to protect themselves in the deed than are automobile purchasers in a position to protect themselves in the bill of sale.' " Accordingly, as Chief Justice Traynor recognized in Connor, supra, 69 Cal.2d 850, the inadequacy of contract and warranty law properly should inform our consideration of the role and use of tort law in this context. (Cf. Kaiser Steel Corp. v. Westinghouse Elec. Corp. (1976) 55 Cal.App.3d 737, 747-748 [127 Cal.Rptr. 838].)

B.

As the majority observes, the author of Connor's rousing confirmation of the right of homeowners to sue in negligence in order to remedy negligent construction also authored the majority opinion in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9—a decision that concerned not an action in negligence for repair of serious construction defects in residential housing, but, instead, an action under warranty and strict products liability for lost business profits arising from an assertedly defective commercial truck. The majority asserts that dictum in Seely, to the effect that "[e]ven in actions for negligence, a manufacturer's liability is limited to damages for physical injuries and there is no recovery for [24 Cal.4th 656] economic loss alone" (id., at p. 18, italics added), supports a conclusion that there can be no recovery in negligence for any of the repair or correction costs here at issue. I disagree with the majority's broad reading of the Seely dictum, and I agree with plaintiffs that Seely's dictum should not be extended to bar recovery in negligence for costs to correct serious safety violations in the construction of dwellings that pose a significant risk of personal injury or property damage. Because the majority relies heavily upon a broad reading of Seely's dictum, and because I believe that reliance is misplaced, I review the decision in Seely in some detail.

In Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, the plaintiff sued the manufacturer in both warranty and strict liability after his truck, which he used in his commercial hauling business, was involved in an accident and needed to be repaired. Previously, the plaintiff had become dissatisfied with the truck; he informed the manufacturer that it was "galloping" (bouncing violently) and was difficult to handle. (Id., at p. 12.) He used the truck in his business for approximately 11 months, during which time the manufacturer tried unsuccessfully on many occasions to correct the galloping problem to the plaintiff's satisfaction. During this period, the plaintiff paid off approximately half of the purchase price. Then one day, rounding a corner, the brakes failed and the truck overturned. The plaintiff was convinced that the accident was caused by the defective condition of the truck, and he also was dissatisfied with the overall performance of the truck, even before the accident. He had the truck repaired, ceased making payments, and sued for "(1) damages, related to the accident, for the repair of the truck, and (2) damages, unrelated to the accident, for the money he had paid on the purchase price and for the profits lost in his business because he was unable to make normal use of the truck." (Id., at p. 13.) The trial court found that the plaintiff had not proved that the galloping had caused the accident, and hence declined to award damages for repair costs. (Ibid.) The trial court did, however, award the other damages on the plaintiff's warranty cause of action. (Ibid.)

In Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, this court approved the award of those damages, based upon the plaintiff's warranty theory. Then, in dictum, we also addressed the plaintiffs' strict liability claim. At this point in the analysis, we considered the damages described in item (2) above, finding them not allowable under strict liability theory. First, we noted concern about the prospect of permitting "unknown and unlimited" liability for such "commercial losses." (Id., at p. 17.) In this regard, we stated that a consumer (i.e., the plaintiff) is "fairly charged with the risk that the product will not match his economic expectations unless the manufacturer agrees that it will." (Id., at p. 18.) The court then stated, in dictum within dictum that has been repeated in subsequent cases and is heavily relied upon by the majority: [24 Cal.4th 657] "Even in actions for negligence, a manufacturer's liability is limited to damages for physical injuries and there is no recovery for economic loss alone." (Ibid., italics added.)

Clearly, this dictum in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, was directed toward the issue presented in Seely—the recovery of lost profits and related liability for commercial expectation damages. The majority, however, reads Seely's dictum much more broadly, as precluding recovery in either negligence or strict liability for the cost of repairing serious and potentially life-threatening defects reflecting building safety code violations in residential housing. I find no such suggestion in Seely. Although the court felt it important to explain that a manufacturer should not be liable in tort for commercial losses caused by the failure of a product to meet the specific needs of a purchaser's business (id., at p. 17), it did not assert, expressly or by implication, that there could be no damages in negligence for correction of serious safety violations in residential housing that pose a danger of personal injury or serious property damage. Such a conclusion, of course, would be quite at odds with the tenor of Chief Justice Traynor's above quoted observations in Connor, supra, 69 Cal.2d at pages 867-868, rendered just a few years thereafter.

Recognition of a homeowner's ability to recover repair costs necessary to remedy serious safety defects in residential housing would not substantially implicate Seely's concerns about "unknown and unlimited" liability for "commercial losses." (Seely, supra, "63 Cal.2d at p. 17.) As plaintiffs note in their joint opening brief, "[r]ecovery of costs of repair in negligence is adequately limited. Code violations or other negligent construction must be proven. Causation must be proven. Costs of repair are limited in amount, even if expert opinions may vary as to exact amounts. The number of claimants is limited to the number of homes sold. These factors distinguish recovery of such costs from the 'economic loss' cases in which concern was expressed about potentially limitless claims by potentially limitless claimants."

In short, Seely's cautions against allowing recovery of commercial expectation damages for lost profits do not justify barring recovery of the cost of repairing serious construction defects involving dwelling code violations that pose a threat to life and property. Accordingly, I find the majority unpersuasive to the extent that it relies on a broad interpretation of the Seely dictum.

C.

The understanding of the limited reach of Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, set forth above is confirmed by numerous decisions described below, in which [24 Cal.4th 658] California courts repeatedly have allowed recovery of construction repair costs.

Eleven years after Seely, the Court of Appeal in Cooper v. Jevne (1976) 56 Cal.App.3d 860 [128 Cal.Rptr. 724] (Cooper), allowed a negligence suit by condominium owners against architects, for "economic loss" damages (id., at p. 868) that included "cost of repairs" (id., at p. 867, fn. 2). Eight years later, the Court of Appeal decision in Huang v. Garner (1984) 157 Cal.App.3d 404 [203 Cal.Rptr. 800] (Huang), presented a situation essentially identical to the one that we address in this case. Apartment building owners sued the developer and contractor for costs to remedy serious safety code violations that, like the present case, fell into two categories: (i) building safety code violations that had manifested themselves in physical damage (id., at p. 419 [these consisted of "deflected and cracked beams and dry rot damages to the balcony area"]), and (ii) building safety code violations that had not yet manifested themselves in physical damage (id., at pp. 419-420 [in Huang, as here, these consisted of inadequate or missing "firewalls, shear walls, fire stops, and other alleged defects in the structure which had not yet caused actual physical damages at the time of trial"]). The Court of Appeal in Huang, distinguishing Seely, ruled that the apartment owners could recover repair costs to remedy the serious building safety code violations that had not yet manifested themselves in physical damage. (Id., at pp. 421-425.) Addressing the crucial question whether there was sufficient certainty that the plaintiffs in that case had suffered harm, the court noted in Huang that the defects were "dangerous, despite the fact that for approximately 17 years they have not caused personal injury to any tenant." (Id., at p. 424.) That court further observed: "Failure to comply with the Uniform Building Code by a developer-contractor involves potential risk of harm to later purchasers. In this case ample evidence was offered with respect to the cost of repairing the subject defects. Thus it is relatively certain that plaintiffs have suffered injury as a result of the defects.... [P]laintiffs have ... suffered damages in being forced to repair the building." (Ibid.)

In Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc. (1986) 185 Cal.App.3d 211 [229 Cal.Rptr. 719], a California appellate court followed Huang, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404, and Cooper, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860, allowing a purchaser of a condominium complex to pursue a negligence action against the builder for the cost to repair both then existing physical damage, e.g., cracking concrete and leaking roofs, and, apparently, detriment that had not yet manifested itself in physical damage, e.g., improperly designed drainage and structural retaining walls. (185 Cal.App.3d at pp. 216, 223-226.) Subsequently, construction litigation decisions of our Courts of Appeal that have had occasion to address the aspect of Huang that is relevant here have [24 Cal.4th 659] uniformly treated Huang's analysis as accepted and established law. (See, e.g., Keru Investments, Inc. v. Cube Co. (1998) 63 Cal.App.4th 1412, 1421-1422 [74 Cal.Rptr.2d 744] [noting that in Huang the plaintiffs were not seeking lost opportunity costs, but instead, " 'the cost to repair the defects in the structure in order to bring it into compliance with the Uniform Building Code' "]; Krusi v. S.J. Amoroso Construction Co. (2000) 81 Cal.App.4th 995, 1000-1001 [97 Cal.Rptr.2d 294] [describing with apparent approval Huang's conclusion that "the plaintiffs were entitled to economic damages" in order to correct building code violations "in addition to recovery for physical damage" and noting testimony in Huang that the defects were " 'dangerous, despite the fact that for approximately 17 years they have not caused personal injury to any tenant' "]; cf. Stearman v. Centex Homes (2000) 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 618 [92 Cal.Rptr.2d 761] [discussing with approval "Huang's definition and application of [Seely's] economic loss rule"].)

D.

Finally, the above reading of Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, also is confirmed by numerous cases from other jurisdictions that permit recovery of construction repair costs essentially identical to those here at issue. Although the majority adopts a broad view of the Seely dictum as barring recovery of costs for repair of construction defects that pose a substantial risk to persons and property, the trend of well-reasoned sister-court decisions is in the opposite direction.

Almost all of the out-of-state decisions in this area cite and discuss Seely and adopt in general a version of the rule set out in that case, restricting recovery for commercial expectation damages. These sister-state decisions recognize that Seely was concerned primarily with precluding potentially limitless damages for lost profits and/or lost commercial expectations in the context of suits for product liability, and these out-of-state cases also recognize, explicitly or implicitly, that suits for costs to repair and correct dwelling safety defects that pose a serious risk to life and limb are clearly distinguishable from Seely and do not similarly implicate concerns of limitless damages.

The majority, ante, at page 636, footnote 7, mentions three such out-of-state decisions. (Kennedy v. Columbia Lumber & Mfg. Co. (1989) 299 S.C. 335 [384 S.E.2d 730, 737] [a builder does not escape liability for building code violations merely because "luck has smiled upon him and no physical harm has yet occurred.... [W]e once again join those states which strive to protect the modern new home buyer"]; Oates v. Jag, Inc. (1985) 314 N.C. 276 [333 S.E.2d 222, 225-226] [allowing recovery of repair costs to correct [24 Cal.4th 660] building code violations that had apparently not caused physical damages, and noting, "[w]e must be realistic.... The purchaser can ill afford to suddenly find a latent defect in his or her home ... and have no remedy for recourse"]; Council of Co-Owners v. Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d 336 (Whiting-Turner).)

The Whiting-Turner case is especially well reasoned and particularly apt here. In that case the Maryland high court permitted the plaintiff in a negligence action to recover the costs necessary to correct the construction of 10 vertical utility shafts in a 22-story condominium complex. The shafts presented a fire hazard because of the absence of required insulation—a serious violation of applicable building codes. (Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d at pp. 338-339.) Although the defective shafts all posed a clear danger of death or personal injury, none of them yet had produced any personal injury or physical property damage.

The Whiting-Turner decision held: " 'We reject the contention by appellant that there can be no recovery in negligence absent proof of personal injury or property damage. We hold that there can be recovery for economic loss. Why should a buyer have to wait for a personal tragedy to occur in order to recover damages to remedy or repair defects? In the final analysis, the cost to the developer for a resulting tragedy could be far greater than the cost of remedying the condition.' [¶] We conclude that the determination of whether a duty will be imposed in this type of case should depend upon the risk generated by the negligent conduct, rather than upon the fortuitous circumstance of the nature of the resultant damage. Where the risk is of death or personal injury the action will lie for recovery of the reasonable cost of correcting the dangerous condition." (Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d at p. 345, fn. omitted.) fn. 1

In addition to these authorities, it is instructive to consider another out-of-state decision relied upon by defendants to support their assertion that all repair and correction costs in the present case should be barred under Seely's rule restricting recovery of commercial expectation damages. As defendants observe, the Florida Supreme Court's closely divided decision in Casa Clara v. Charley Toppino and Sons (Fla. 1993) 620 So.2d 1244 (Casa Clara) does support defendants' and the majority's position. There, a condominium association sued the supplier of concrete for having provided defective [24 Cal.4th 661] concrete with a high salt content that caused it to crack, putting at risk the dwellings constructed with the concrete. The Florida high court, employing a broad interpretation of Seely's dictum barring recovery of commercial expectation damages (Casa Clara, at p. 1245 et seq.), and ignoring Chief Justice Traynor's caution against relying on contract law to protect homeowners in such circumstances (see ante, at pp. 654-655), concluded that home buyers should " 'bear the cost of economic losses sustained by those who failed to bargain for adequate contract remedies' " (Casa Clara, at p. 1247), and denied the condominium association any recovery in negligence premised upon "the mere possibility" that the defective concrete "will cause physical injury." (Id., at p. 1247.) The court reasoned in Casa Clara that the plaintiffs' "argument goes completely against the principle that injury must occur before a negligence action exists. Because an injury has not occurred, its extent and the identity of injured persons is completely speculative." (Ibid., italics added.) The court in Casa Clara was divided four to three, and reached its conclusion over the dissenting justices' protestations that "it stretches reason to apply the [economic loss] doctrine in this context." (Id., at p. 1248 (conc. & dis. opn. of Barkett, C. J.).)

Defendants, however, overlook the subsequent history of Casa Clara. More than a year ago, the Florida Supreme Court, by a six-to-one vote, "effectively overruled" that case. (Moransais v. Heathman (Fla. 1999) 744 So.2d 973, 985 (dis. opn. of Overton, J.) [characterizing the majority opinion] (Moransais).) fn. 2 The Florida high court's analysis and observations in Moransais concerning the proper scope of Seely's rule barring recovery of commercial expectation damages are especially instructive and strongly repudiate the broad application of the rule proposed by defendants and the majority.

Moransais, supra, 744 So.2d 973, was a suit by a homeowner against a professional engineer who had inspected the plaintiff's home prior to purchase. The inspection had failed to disclose various (unspecified) defects that "rendered the home uninhabitable" (id., at p. 975), but which had not yet caused any property damage or personal injury. The plaintiff was not in privity with the engineer, but was with the engineer's employer. The plaintiff sued the engineer personally for his negligent inspection of the home. [24 Cal.4th 662]

Consistent with Cooper, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860, in which our Court of Appeal permitted a similar action against architects, the Florida high court in Moransais, supra, 744 So.2d 973, allowed the negligence suit against the engineer. In the process, the Florida court explained that its prior decisions—including, most notably, Casa Clara—"[u]nfortunately" had extended the economic loss doctrine "beyond its principled origins and have contributed to applications of the rule ... well beyond our original intent." (Moransais, supra, 744 So.2d at p. 980, italics added).) The court held that henceforth, the doctrine would be limited in order to avoid precluding traditional and well-established actions in tort. (Id., at p. 983.)

Underscoring its retreat from its prior applications of Seely's economic loss rule, the court explained in Moransais: "Today, we again emphasize that by recognizing that the economic loss rule may have some genuine, but limited, value in our damages law, we never intended to bar well-established common law causes of action, such as those for neglect in providing professional services. Rather, the rule was primarily intended to limit actions in the product liability context, and its application should generally be limited to those contexts or situations where the policy considerations are substantially identical to those underlying the product liability-type analysis.... The rule, in any case, should not be invoked to bar well-established causes of actions in tort ...." (Moransais, supra, 744 So.2d at p. 983, fn. omitted, italics added.) The court in Moransais concluded by stressing that " '[i]f the doctrine were genuinely applied to bar "all tort claims for economic losses without accompanying personal injury or property damage," the rule would wreak havoc on the common law of torts.' " (Ibid., italics added.)

Instead of expanding the reach of Seely's rule barring recovery of commercial expectation damages beyond its proper original and intended scope, and instead of reaching to distinguish and disapprove established California Court of Appeal decisions that appropriately have limited the scope of Seely's dictum in the context of serious building code violations, we should, like the Florida Supreme Court, recognize the appropriate limited reach of the Seely doctrine so that it does not preclude application of traditional rules of negligence permitting limited and rational recovery of correction costs in the circumstances here presented.

II.

Even outside the construction defect context, past California decisions do not support the majority's conclusion that the dictum in Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, properly should be interpreted to bar a plaintiff in a negligence action from recovering damages in the absence of personal injury or physical property damage. [24 Cal.4th 663]

For example, in Potter v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. (1993) 6 Cal.4th 965 [25 Cal.Rptr.2d 550, 863 P.2d 795] (Potter), a case in which the plaintiffs were negligently exposed to carcinogens in their drinking water, we approved the plaintiffs' recovery of costs for medical monitoring, prior to any actual manifestation of personal injury. (Id., at p. 974.) Our reasoning in Potter in permitting the plaintiffs to recover the costs of medical monitoring is instructive here.

First, Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965, employing established tort analysis, allowed recovery of costs to monitor an increased risk of future illness even though there was no "present physical injury or illness" (id., at p. 974), upon a showing that the need for such monitoring was a reasonably necessary response to the defendant's negligent acts. (Id., at p. 1009.) The same reasoning applies here: Costs to remedy the most serious building code safety violations should be allowed to the extent they are a reasonably prudent and necessary response to the defendants' negligent acts, incurred to avoid or minimize the damage that will result from such negligence.

Second, Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965, approved the recovery of these limited damages, without regard to the majority's broad reading of the Seely dictum. Potter is obviously distinguishable from Seely, in that Potter addressed medical monitoring costs designed to guard against severe personal injury, whereas the Seely dictum was addressed to the question of allowing recovery of potentially limitless lost profits and lost commercial expectations. In the same fashion, the present case also is distinguishable from Seely—here we are concerned with repair costs designed to guard against severe personal injury and property damage caused by negligent construction of residential housing. Seely's dictum did not stand in the way of allowing monitoring costs in Potter, and it does not stand in the way of allowing repair costs here.

Third, as plaintiffs observe in their briefs, and as Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965, stressed (id., at pp. 1005-1006), Civil Code section 3333 provides that a plaintiff may recover in negligence damages "for all the detriment proximately caused thereby" (italics added)—the statute imposes no requirement of a showing of present physical injury or property damage. fn. 3 This statute and comparable provisions of the Restatement Second of Torts (§§ 7, 910, & 917) are at odds with the majority's broad application of the Seely dictum and with its holding that, in the absence of present physical injury or [24 Cal.4th 664] property damage, costs to remedy the most serious building code safety violations conceded here are not recoverable in negligence.

Fourth, just as we acknowledged in Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965, with regard to the various policy reasons supporting recovery of medical monitoring costs in that case (id., at p. 1008), here as well, policy factors relating to public safety, deterrence, mitigation of damages, economic efficiency, and "societal notions of fairness and elemental justice" (ibid.) all militate in favor of allowing the limited recovery proposed.

Finally, as was true with regard to the medical monitoring costs at issue in Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965, the policy factors supporting the conclusion that we should allow recovery of costs to repair the most serious safety code defects here at issue—considerations aimed at ensuring that known safety risks in our housing stock are avoided, or at least corrected—in this case militate in favor of adopting a "fund remedy" procedure that we described with approval in Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th at page 1010, footnote 28. fn. 4

III.

As the majority implicitly concedes, the scope of Seely's dictum, supra, "63 Cal.2d at page 18, has been limited in a variety of contexts by decisions allowing such recovery upon a proper showing based upon the familiar six-factor test set out in Biakanja v. Irving (1958) 49 Cal.2d 647 [320 P.2d 16, 65 A.L.R.2d 1358] (Biakanja) and J'Aire Corp. v. Gregory (1979) 24 Cal.3d 799 [157 Cal.Rptr. 407, 598 P.2d 60] (J'Aire). In light of that authority, the majority finds it necessary to paraphrase the question before us as follows: "Does the law of negligence protect plaintiffs' economic interests in having houses that fully comply with the building codes, measured by the cost of repairs or diminished value associated with noncompliance, even [24 Cal.4th 665] though the asserted harm to those interests is unaccompanied by any injury to person or property?" (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 645, italics added.)

By reformulating the question in this manner, the majority skews the inquiry and fails adequately to consider that even if a negligence action cannot be maintained for the costs of remedying every minor building code violation, general common law negligence principles support a cause of action for the costs of correcting serious building code safety violations that pose a significant risk of death, serious personal injury, or considerable property damage if left unremedied. fn. 5

In applying the traditional six-factor test, the majority determines with very little discussion that four of the six relevant factors set out in Biakanja, supra, "49 Cal.2d at page 650, and J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d at page 804, support plaintiffs' right to sue in negligence for repair costs, but that two of the factors do not support a negligence action for costs of repair. The majority applies these factors out of their traditional order, and I shall do so here as well, addressing last the two assertedly problematic factors.

A.

Factor (1): The extent to which the transaction was intended to affect plaintiffs. The majority, in a single sentence, "assume[s] for argument's sake that the conduct of a person engaged in construction is 'intended to affect' [24 Cal.4th 666] all foreseeable purchasers of the property." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 646.) It is unclear why the majority includes that qualification; this factor is quite clearly met, and is in fact established law, as the Court of Appeal—which ultimately agreed with the majority's conclusion that the repair costs sought by plaintiffs are not recoverable—readily acknowledged. The appellate court stated: "It is undisputed that the 162-unit residential condominium project at issue in the pending Provencal case was developed and built by [codefendant] Lyon. The subcontractors were also involved in the construction of Provencal. It is also undisputed that the Aas [plaintiffs'] single-family homes were developed and built by Lyon, and that Lyon subcontracted with several design and construction professionals to design and build the homes. [¶] These facts are sufficient to satisfy the first Biakanja factor under well-settled case law." (Italics added.) I believe the majority should acknowledge, and not minimize, plaintiffs' strong showing with regard to this factor.

B.

Factor (4): The closeness of the connection between defendants' conduct and the injury suffered. The majority also "assume[s] that a sufficiently 'close[] connection [exists] between ... defendant's conduct' and the alleged defects." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 647.) Again, the Court of Appeal expressed no hesitation on this point, stating: "Lyon and subcontractors do not vigorously contend their conduct is remote to [plaintiffs'] alleged harm. Their alleged conduct is sufficiently connected to the alleged construction defects alleged in the [plaintiffs'] pleadings."

C.

Factor (5): The moral blame attached to defendants' conduct. The majority concedes that "some 'moral blame' arguably 'attach[es]' to many deviations from the building codes," but asserts that "the degree of blame would appear to depend upon the nature of the deviation." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 647, italics added.) Yet again, the Court of Appeal did not couch its review of this factor in such a grudging manner. It first quoted Chief Justice Traynor's discussion in Connor, supra, "69 Cal.2d at page 867, of the importance of providing a remedy in negligence for homeowner victims of defective construction, and then noted:

"Chief Justice Traynor's observations are relevant here in light of [plaintiffs'] allegations and offers of proof that the construction of their homes fell below the standard of care and failed to comply with the minimum requirements for shear walls and fire walls as set forth in the Uniform Building Code, and the minimum requirements set forth in the National Electrical [24 Cal.4th 667] Code. In Huang, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d at page 424, the court addressed the moral blameworthiness of violating building codes and contracting regulations: '[C]onsidering the importance of the minimum standards for housing set forth in the pertinent provisions of the Uniform Building Code, the violation of those standards involves sufficient "moral blame" to meet the fifth of the six criteria adopted in J'Aire ....'

"[Plaintiffs] assert that assessing moral blame for violating building codes reflects California's strong policy in favor of quality construction of homes. We agree.... '[N]egligent construction principles rest on a policy determination that purchasers of homes should not be harmed by defective housing caused by a breach of the duty to construct properly ....' "

Once again, I submit that the majority ought to acknowledge, and not minimize, plaintiffs' strong showing with regard to this factor. fn. 6

D.

Factor (6): The policy of preventing future harm. The majority concedes that this is "probably plaintiffs' strongest argument." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 647.) The majority notes that the policy of preventing future harm "might be served by a rule of tort liability" that permits recovery of repair costs on the facts alleged here. (Ibid., italics added.) The majority further acknowledges that it "might be less expensive," as plaintiffs argue, "to require builders to pay to correct defects as soon as they are detected rather than after property damage or personal injury has occurred." (Ibid., italics added.)

After conceding these points, the majority proceeds, however, to diminish the weight of this factor by the majority's depiction of the present suit, asserting that plaintiffs seek to make the "builders, in effect, the insurers of building code compliance, even as to defects that have not caused property damage or personal injury." (Maj., opn., ante, at p. 649, italics added.)

Contrary to the majority's mischaracterization, plaintiffs' action in this case clearly does not attempt to make defendants "insurers." The suit simply seeks to have defendants pay limited repair costs necessitated by defendants' concededly negligent conduct in constructing plaintiffs' homes. Moreover, the majority fails to acknowledge that any liability on the part of defendants [24 Cal.4th 668] plainly is limited in duration—it expires, by statute, 10 years after the completion of construction (Code Civ. Proc., § 337.15)—which period may have already elapsed in this litigation. fn. 7

The majority also asserts that allowing the limited form of recovery sought here "should also be unnecessary to the extent buyers timely enforce their contract, warranty and inspection rights, and to the extent building authorities vigorously enforce the applicable codes for new construction." (Maj., opn., ante, at p. 649, italics added.) That is true, but it begs the question that we are required to answer: What remedy is there when there is no privity, and hence there are no contract rights, or when there is privity, but disclaimers or technical notice rules preclude enforcement of contract rights (see ante, at pp. 654-655, or when there is inspection, but the defect cannot reasonably be noticed by the usual home buyer (see Connor, supra, "69 Cal.2d at p. 867; Kriegler, supra, "269 Cal.App.2d at p. 228)—or when, as apparently has occurred with alarming frequency, local building inspectors (for whatever reason) fail to notice and require correction of serious building code safety violations? Does the "policy in favor of preventing future harm" call for recognition of a limited negligence action to fill the gaps in such circumstances? The majority never satisfactorily answers this crucial question.

Again, the Court of Appeal had no trouble with this factor. It wrote:

"The policy of preventing future harm is fundamental to the tort system, and California case law demonstrates this policy applies to safeguarding against preventable construction defects which result in physical injuries to people and property.... [As] our high court [has] stated: '[T]he prevention of future negligent construction of buildings upon insufficiently supportive material would not be furthered by exempting [the builder] from liability for his negligence. [Citations.]'

"... [I]n Connor, supra, 69 Cal.2d at pages 867-868, Chief Justice Traynor eloquently expressed the judiciary's concern for proper construction of housing in California: 'The admonitory policy of the law of torts calls for the imposition of liability on [defendant] for its conduct in this case. Rules that tend to discourage misconduct are particularly appropriate when applied to an established industry. [¶] By all the foregoing tests, [defendant] had a duty to exercise reasonable care to prevent the construction and sale of seriously defective homes to plaintiffs.... In any event, there is no enduring social utility in fostering the construction of seriously defective homes.' [24 Cal.4th 669]

"Here, [plaintiffs] have alleged causes of action in negligence against a home developer, a general contractor, and various housing subcontractors for recovery of damages resulting from numerous alleged construction defects, including but not limited to serious violations of minimum standards set forth in the Uniform Building Code and other governing codes. The policy concern for ensuring proper construction of vital structural housing components, such as shear walls, is meant to protect not only the physical structure, but also the personal safety of all homeowners." (Italics added.)

In an immediately following footnote, the Court of Appeal observed: "In this regard, we take judicial notice of one of the recommendations of the California State Seismic Commission, which investigated the Northridge earthquake under our Governor's Earthquake Executive Order: 'The greatest opportunity to ensure seismic safety is during a building's design and construction.... The Northridge earthquake and other past earthquakes have clearly and repeatedly demonstrated the remarkable effectiveness of paying attention to quality in reducing earthquake losses. Quality assurance is the single most important policy improvement needed to manage California's earthquake risk.' (California Seismic Safety Commission, 'Northridge Earthquake: Turning Loss To Gain,' Dec. 1, 1994, at p. 22, italics added.)" fn. 8

In my view, the policy of preventing future harm operates here as a factor that very strongly militates in favor of recognizing a right of action in negligence to recover costs to remedy safety code violations that pose a serious threat of injury to the residents of and visitors to the dwellings here at issue. Once again, I submit that the majority should frankly concede, rather than attempt to minimize, plaintiffs' strong showing with regard to this factor.

E.

Factor (2): The foreseeability of harm to plaintiffs. The majority's entire treatment of this factor is as follows: "[T]o ask ... whether the harm to plaintiffs was 'foreseeab[le]' [citation] simply begs the question: What harm?" (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 646.)

In contrast to the majority's approach, the Court of Appeal stated: "[T]he Supreme Court cases that have addressed the second Biakanja factor ... in the construction defect context have held that harm to homeowners caused by negligent construction is foreseeable. [Citations.] [¶] ... [Here,] as to the alleged violations of governing building codes, it is foreseeable that such [24 Cal.4th 670] code violations may result in otherwise preventable injury to persons or other property. For example, it is foreseeable that an insufficient fire wall in a condominium may fail in the event there is a fire in an adjoining unit, resulting in a conflagration that could have been prevented had the fire wall been constructed in compliance with the minimum building code safety standards." (Italics added.)

It is foreseeable that a reasonably prudent person, made aware of seriously deficient shear walls and fire walls in his or her home, would suffer appreciable present harm by virtue of being exposed to, and thereby having the legal duty to address (see post, pp. 671-672), a known unreasonable risk to personal safety and to property.

F.

Factor (3): The degree of certainty that plaintiffs suffered injury. This is the factor that the majority finds is both (i) the most important in this case, and (ii) the one that presents a "relatively objective obstacle to plaintiffs' claim" to recover the cost of remedying the serious building code safety violations conceded on this record. (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 645.) The majority begins with the premise that "[c]onstruction defects that have not ripened into property damage, or at least into involuntary out-of-pocket losses, do not comfortably fit the definition of ' "appreciable harm" '—an essential element of a negligence claim." (Id., at pp. 645-646, citing Davies v. Krasna (1975) 14 Cal.3d 502, 513 [121 Cal.Rptr. 705, 535 P.2d 1161, 79 A.L.R.3d 807] (Davies).)

Davies, supra, 14 Cal.3d 502, is not on point. That case addressed the question at what point, after a breach of duty, a plaintiff suffers damages sufficient to begin the running of the statute of limitations. Davies did not concern, and did not address, whether, and under what conditions, the incurring of reasonably necessary repair costs in the absence of personal injury or property damage would establish a sufficient degree of certainty that injury had been suffered. Of course, a decision does not stand for a proposition that it did not address or consider.

The majority nevertheless relies upon Davies, supra, 14 Cal.3d 502, to support its implicit conclusion that on the facts presented, there exists an insufficient degree of certainty that plaintiffs have suffered harm. fn. 9 I believe that under the standard of review articulated by the majority, the conclusion it reaches is incorrect. [24 Cal.4th 671]

As the majority asserts, "the question is whether, disregarding conflicting evidence, indulging in every legitimate inference that may be drawn from the evidence, and viewing the record in the light most favorable to plaintiffs," there is substantial evidence to support a judgment in plaintiffs' favor. (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 634, italics added.) In my view, if we faithfully apply that standard, we must conclude that there is substantial evidence establishing with sufficient certainty that with regard to the most serious safety code violations at issue in this litigation, plaintiffs have suffered appreciable present injury or harm.

The Court of Appeal below expressly found that the crucial "degree of certainty that plaintiffs suffered injury" factor was met on these facts. The Court of Appeal stated: "[W]e agree with the Huang court's conclusion that evidence of a negligent failure by a developer or contractor to comply with the minimum standards set forth in governing building codes, supported by evidence of the cost to repair the building code violations, is sufficient to satisfy the Biakanja 'degree of certainty of harm' factor." The Court of Appeal quoted extensively from offers of proof by experts retained by both plaintiffs and defendants, to the effect that the dwellings contained inadequate shear walls and fire walls, and that repairs to correct these problems would cost "several hundreds of thousands of dollars," and then concluded: "[Plaintiffs'] offer of proof, and the construction defect allegations in [the] complaint in connection with the negligence cause of action, are sufficient to show the requisite certainty ... that [plaintiffs] have suffered latent harm."

As suggested above, I agree with the majority to the extent it declines to allow recovery in negligence for the cost of repairing construction defects that pose no significant risk of serious personal injury or property damage. Accordingly, I would not recognize a negligence action to recover the costs of repairing matters such as "discolored drain stoppers, and inoperable garbage disposals." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 647.) On the other hand, I believe that by being subjected to the risk posed by defective shear walls and fire walls, plaintiffs have suffered appreciable present compensable injury. fn. 10 Indeed, plaintiffs' knowledge of these defects places upon them a legal duty to make necessary repairs or corrections. [24 Cal.4th 672]

Most of the plaintiffs in these consolidated cases (those who live in condominiums) are under legal compulsion, through their condominium association, to repair common areas—and this would certainly include a duty to remedy known major safety violations in shear walls and fire walls located in common areas that had not yet caused actual physical damage or injury. (Civ. Code §§ 1364, subd. (a) [duty to repair common areas], 1351, subd. (b) [common area defined].)

Similarly, all single-family-structure homeowner plaintiffs in this proceeding are under a duty to disclose known defects to potential purchasers, and perhaps more importantly, like any possessor of real property, they also are under a legal obligation to take reasonable steps to remedy known safety defects in or on their own property. A reasonably prudent homeowner, learning of, for example, the serious shear wall or fire wall defects in his or her home, would act to correct or repair those defects, in order to avoid unreasonable risk of collapse of the structure during a windstorm or earthquake, or in order to avoid rapid spread of a fire from one room to others.

Plaintiffs' showing here is no less than that found to be adequate in similar circumstances in Cooper, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860, Huang, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404, Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc., supra, 185 Cal.App.3d 211, and in various out-of-state decisions—most notably, the Maryland high court's decision in Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d 336 and the Florida Supreme Court's decision in Moransais, supra, 744 So.2d 973. Nor is plaintiffs' showing any less than that found to be adequate in analogous circumstances in Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th 965.

I submit that on these facts compensable present injury to plaintiffs is reasonably certain, because a reasonably prudent person, having become aware of the unreasonable risk posed by known building code safety defects such as inadequate shear walls and fire walls, would act to repair or correct those defects. I would recognize a limited negligence action as described above, and, in light of the public interest in ensuring that such repairs [24 Cal.4th 673] actually are undertaken, I would require court-supervised disbursement of damages awarded in such cases. (See Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th at p. 1010, fn. 28, quoted ante, fn. 4.) fn. 11

IV.

California is prone to earthquakes and, tragically, the negligent construction of residential housing almost surely will result in the deaths and injury of numerous current and future residents of this state, as it has in the past. In the context of a case such as the one now before us, the goal of tort law is to minimize, in an appropriate and balanced manner, the number of those deaths and injuries. In light of today's majority opinion—which misapplies and improperly disapproves California's established case law and, in failing to recognize an appropriate and limited right to recover costs to remedy serious safety code violations, rejects the reasoning of well-considered decisions of our sister-state courts—the obligation falls upon the Legislature to correct this court's unfortunate misstep in the development of the law, and to provide the protection that California residents deserve.

CONCURRING AND DISSENTING OPINION:

MOSK, J.-

Because I believe it is economically efficient to provide plaintiffs with a remedy to repair conditions that allegedly pose a serious safety hazard, I respectfully dissent from the majority's contrary conclusion. I believe the Supreme Court of Indiana pointed out quite well the inefficiency inherent in the economic loss rule as applied to such conditions: "If there is a defect in a stairway and the purchaser repairs the defect and suffers an economic loss, should he fail to recover because he did not wait until he or some member of his family fell down the stairs and broke his neck?" (Barnes v. Mac Brown & Company, Inc. (1976) 264 Ind. 227, 230 [342 N.E.2d 619, 621].) Thus, to answer the majority's rhetorical question, "What harm?" (maj. opn., ante, at p. 646), I would say, the harm that will arise when homeowners, believing, as humans are wont to do, that injury only befalls others, fail to repair hazardous conditions.

It is evident that many Californians live in modern mass-market housing. It appears, moreover, that cutting corners is a prevailing problem in the development industry. The descriptions of construction defects in the numerous letter briefs we have received from the construction law bar suggest as much. The briefs describe the willingness of some developers to evade or stint the Uniform Building Code's safety requirements, among other elements. In this context, the majority's result is likely, as one litigant put it, to [24 Cal.4th 674] create "an invitation for developers, general contractors and subcontractors to ignore [construction] Code requirements when building and developing homes."

The majority tacitly acknowledge the risks of inefficiency their rule generates: "[T]o require builders to pay to correct defects as soon as they are detected rather than after property damage or personal injury has occurred might be less expensive. On the other hand, such a rule would likely increase the cost of housing by an unforeseeable amount as builders raised prices to cover the increased risk of liability." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 649.) The first sentence in the quotation is almost certainly correct, as it is less costly to society to require a contractor to nail down the loose stair than to pay for hospitalization after a needless tumble down the flight of steps. The second sentence, by contrast, even if correct, assumes that builders are inadequately constructing mass-market housing—there is no risk of liability if the housing is correctly built. And it can only be correct if builders pass along the savings realized by poor construction to their customers, rather than realizing increased profits from deficient building practices. I do not share the majority's evident assumption that the former is correct.

I would adopt a view similar to that of Judge Richard Posner in Eljer Mfg., Inc. v. Liberty Mut. Ins. Co. (7th Cir. 1992) 972 F.2d 805 (Eljer). Interpreting comprehensive general liability insurance policies that defined the term "property damage" as " 'physical injury to ... tangible property' " (id. at p. 807), but considering facts similar to those of this case, Posner wrote that physical injury to property occurs when it "results from ... physical linkage, as when a potentially dangerous product is incorporated into another and, because it is incorporated and not merely contained (as a piece of furniture is contained in a house but can be removed without damage to the house), must be removed, at some cost, in order to prevent the danger from materializing. There is an analogy to fixtures in the law of real and personal property—improvements to property that cannot be removed without damaging it. See, e.g., UCC § 9-313." (Id. at p. 810, italics added.) fn. 1

The Eljer approach obviates the need to consider the Biakanja factors (Biakanja v. Irving (1958) 49 Cal.2d 647, 650 [320 P.2d 16, 65 A.L.R.2d 1358]; see Ott v. Alfa-Laval Agri, Inc. (1995) 31 Cal.App.4th 1439, 1449 [37 Cal.Rptr.2d 790])—although even under those factors I believe, like the Chief Justice but unlike the majority, that damages are sufficiently ascertainable to justify liability. The rule I favor would state that property damage occurs when what may be termed "fixtures" for purposes of discussion, [24 Cal.4th 675] inseparable from the structure of the houses or condominiums and inaccessible for repair without destroying existing features, are negligently built or installed. (Cf. Cal. U. Com. Code, § 9102, subd. (a)(41).) fn. 2

We here consider alleged latent defects, capable of causing serious injury or major property damage, that may only be found years or decades after the developer caused them, yet require repair to avoid later injury or major property loss. (In this regard, Code Civ. Proc., § 337.15 permits recovery for property damage caused by latent defects in construction only for 10 years after the work is substantially completed. The statute of limitations is already a substantial bar to any threat of limitless liability.) I believe a narrow rule could be drawn to provide a tort remedy for such defects. It seems that a finely crafted rule would not need to apply to such items as negligent heating, air conditioning, and ventilation work, or, to refer to the majority's rather dismissive examples, "doors that are out of plumb, discolored drain stoppers, and inoperable garbage disposals" (maj. opn., ante, at p. 647). (See Council of Co-Owners v. Whiting-Turner (1986) 308 Md. 18, 35, fn. 5 [517 A.2d 336, 345] [limiting recovery to fixing defects that pose "a clear danger of death or personal injury"].) fn. 3 I regret the majority's unwillingness to adopt even a minimal safeguard. The proper view, I believe, is that articulated in Biakanja: "Liability has [been] imposed, in the absence of privity, upon suppliers of goods and services which, if negligently made or rendered, are 'reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril.' " (Biakanja v. Irving, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, 649.)

­FN 1. The following is a representative excerpt from plaintiff's offer of proof:

"5. During the investigation at Provencal in this case, engineers ... observed violations of the Uniform Building Code, including failures to properly construct shear walls and failures to properly connect shear walls to other building components. Such shear walls and connections are required under the Uniform Building Code to prevent or minimize property damage and personal injury in the event of seismic and wind forces....

"6. During the investigation at Provencal in this case, architects ... observed violations of the Uniform Building Code, including failures to properly construct one-hour and two-hour fire protection in party walls. Such fire protection measures are required under the Uniform Building Code to prevent or minimize property damage and personal injury in the event of a fire.... [¶] ... [¶]

"8. During the investigation of Provencal in this case, [an] electrical engineer ... observed numerous violations of the National Electrical Code, including failures to support electrical cables, improperly supported light fixtures, and improperly labeled electrical circuits.... [¶] ... [¶]

"10. For many of the Uniform Building Code and National Electrical Code violations described in paragraphs 5, 6, and 8, there has not yet been any physical property damage or personal injury...."

­FN 2. Plaintiff in Provencal subsequently moved to amend its complaint to allege a cause of action for breach of implied warranty. Plaintiff's request for judicial notice of defendant Lyon's memorandum in opposition to the motion, filed after the Court of Appeal affirmed the trial court's ruling, is denied.

­FN 3. The trial court explained: "I would address [at trial] any issues that are over and above my ruling that you felt were close calls and listen to what your proffer might be at the appropriate time." There is, thus, no basis for assuming that every item on the exhaustive lists of construction defects attached to defendants' motions in limine is deemed excluded, even if plaintiffs are able to prove that a particular defect has actually caused property damage.

­FN 4. Sabella v. Wisler (1963) 59 Cal.2d 21, 27-30 [27 Cal.Rptr. 689, 377 P.2d 889]; Stewart v. Cox (1961) 55 Cal.2d 857, 861-863 [13 Cal.Rptr. 521, 362 P.2d 345]; Hale v. Depaoli (1948) 33 Cal.2d 228, 230-232 [201 P.2d 1, 13 A.L.R.2d 183]; Sumitomo Bank v. Taurus Developers, Inc. (1986) 185 Cal.App.3d 211, 223-224 [229 Cal.Rptr. 719]; Huang v. Garner (1984) 157 Cal.App.3d 404, 419-425 [203 Cal.Rptr. 800]; Cooper v. Jevne (1976) 56 Cal.App.3d 860, 867-869 [128 Cal.Rptr. 724].

­FN 5. Stearman v. Centex Homes (2000) 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 613 [92 Cal.Rptr.2d 761] (citing the many decisions applying strict liability to construction defects); Avner v. Longridge Estates (1969) 272 Cal.App.2d 607, 609-615 [77 Cal.Rptr. 633]; Kriegler v. Eichler Homes, Inc. (1969) 269 Cal.App.2d 224, 227-229 [74 Cal.Rptr. 749].

­FN 6. Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 613-614, 617-623.

­FN 7. Courts in other jurisdictions have reached various conclusions on this subject. South Carolina broadly holds builders liable in tort for all deviations from applicable building code and industry standards that diminish the value of a house. (Kennedy v. Columbia Lumber & Mfg. Co. (1989) 299 S.C. 335 [384 S.E.2d 730, 736-738].) Maryland more narrowly permits homeowners to recover in a negligence action the reasonable cost of correcting construction defects that present "a clear danger of death or personal injury," but not conditions that present merely "a risk to general health, welfare, or comfort ...." (Council of Co-Owners v. Whiting-Turner (1986) 308 Md. 18, 35 [517 A.2d 336, 344-345 & fn. 5].) A North Carolina decision does not clearly identify the circumstances that will support recovery, but holds that the plaintiffs stated a cause of action for negligence by alleging they "were forced to undergo extensive demolition and repair work to correct the defective, dangerous and unsafe conditions caused by the defendant's negligence." (Oates v. Jag, Inc. (1985) 314 N.C. 276 [333 S.E.2d 222, 224-226].)

In contrast, the Supreme Court of Nevada, after tentatively rejecting the economic loss rule in construction defect cases (Calloway v. City of Reno (1997) 113 Nev. 564 [939 P.2d 1020, 1024-1026]), reversed course on rehearing and held that no liability exists for defects that cause damage only to the house and its components. (Calloway v. City of Reno (Nev. 2000) 993 P.2d 1259, 1263-1270 [trial court properly dismissed negligence claims alleging that defective framing caused water intrusion, damage to flooring and ceilings, and structural and wood decay].)

­FN 8. The six factors were: "the extent to which the transaction was intended to affect the plaintiff, the foreseeability of harm to him, the degree of certainty that the plaintiff suffered injury, the closeness of the connection between the defendant's conduct and the injury suffered, the moral blame attached to the defendant's conduct, and the policy of preventing future harm." (Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, 650.)

­FN 9. See generally Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 613. Compare Peterson v. Superior Court (1995) 10 Cal.4th 1185, 1200 [43 Cal.Rptr.2d 836, 899 P.2d 905], Cronin v. J.B.E. Olson Corp. (1972) 8 Cal.3d 121, 130 [104 Cal.Rptr. 433, 501 P.2d 1153], and Price v. Shell Oil Co. (1970) 2 Cal.3d 245, 251 and footnote 6 [85 Cal.Rptr. 178, 466 P.2d 722] (all acknowledging the doctrine's potential applicability to persons in the business of residential construction).

­FN 10. The concurring and dissenting justices would hold that property damage occurs when a defective component is incorporated into a house. (Conc. & dis. opn. of Mosk, J., at pp. 674-675; see also conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., at p. 673, fn. 11.) The decision offered as support for that view, Eljer Mfg., Inc. v. Liberty Mut. Ins. Co. (7th Cir. 1992) 972 F.2d 805, however, offers its conclusion not as a rule of tort liability but as an interpretation of contractual language in an insurance policy. While we intimate no view as to Eljer's correctness as a matter of California law, we find the decision insufficiently relevant to the question before us to be of any assistance.

­FN 11. Plaintiffs also argue that Seely, supra, 63 Cal.2d 9, does not apply to the negligent performance of services, as distinguished from the negligent manufacture of products, but the basis for that argument appears, once again, to be that J'Aire, supra, 24 Cal.3d 799, takes precedence over Seely. (See North American Chemical Co. v. Superior Court, supra, 59 Cal.App.4th 764, 778-785, and Huang v. Garner, supra, 157 Cal.App.3d 404, 421-424 [both concluding that liability under J'Aire is unaffected by Seely]; cf. Cooper v. Jevne, supra, 56 Cal.App.3d 860, 867-869 [relying on Biakanja, supra, 49 Cal.2d 647, rather than J'Aire, to reach the same conclusion].)

­FN 12. In addition to these cases cited by plaintiffs, the Chief Justice relies on Connor v. Great Western Sav. & Loan Assn. (1968) 69 Cal.2d 850 [73 Cal.Rptr. 369, 447 P.2d 609, 39 A.L.R.3d 224], Krusi v. S.J. Amoroso Construction Co. (2000) 81 Cal.App.4th 995 [97 Cal.Rptr.2d 294], Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, and Keru Investments, Inc. v. Cube Co. (1998) 63 Cal.App.4th 1412 [74 Cal.Rptr.2d 744]. None of these cases purports to hold that a plaintiff may recover for construction defects that have not caused damage to other property.

In Connor v. Great Western Sav. & Loan Assn., supra, 69 Cal.2d 850, this court held that persons whose homes "suffered serious damage from cracking caused by ill-designed foundations" (id. at p. 856) could sue the construction lender as the joint venturer of the developer on the theory that it owed the plaintiffs a duty to "exercise reasonable care to protect them from damages caused by major structural defects" (id. at p. 866). Thus, to the extent Connor might be thought relevant to the case before us, it is entirely consistent with the rule we apply today. (The Legislature has rejected Connor's holding that construction lenders are liable in negligence for construction defects. See Civ. Code, § 3434.)

The courts in Krusi v. S.J. Amoroso Construction Co., supra, 81 Cal.App.4th 995, 1005, and Keru Investments, Inc. v. Cube Co., supra, 63 Cal.App.4th 1412, 1423-1425, held simply that causes of action for construction defects accrued when the defects caused damage and belonged to the persons who owned the buildings at that time, rather than to the subsequent purchasers. Because the courts in both cases held the plaintiffs lacked standing to sue, neither court faced any question of liability for purely economic damages. In any event, the buildings at issue in both cases had actually suffered major structural damage as a result of construction defects. (Krusi, at p. 998; Keru, at p. 1415.) The court in Stearman v. Centex Homes, supra, 78 Cal.App.4th 611, 616-623, held merely that strict liability applies when a defective component of a house damages a nondefective component. (See p. 641, ante.)

­FN 13. Amicus curiae explains in detail how alleged defects that might on "[i]nitial impression[]" seem "trivial, nitpickey and even ridiculous," might cause or indicate serious problems. "Closet shelving, interior doors not fitting properly, sagging roof rafters, spalling plaster, [and] GFI [ground fault interrupt] receptacles missing" are cited as examples. Expert testimony at trial, amicus curiae speculates, might show that "the location of the closet shelving in conjunction with the lighting poses a fire hazard and violates the National Electrical Code. The interior doors may not fit properly because the buildings/homes have moved due to structural problems or soil issues. The roof rafters may be sagging because they were not attached properly, and their installation violates the Uniform Building Code. The plaster could be spalling due to missing structural components, and by the way, maybe the plaster is supposed to serve as some shear. The missing GFI receptacles pose a fire hazard and a life safety threat to adults and children and the fact that they are missing violates the National Electrical Code."

­FN 14. This case illustrates the problem. The Chief Justice apparently concludes that the defects alleged in this case put plaintiffs' homes at risk of collapse or fire. (Conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., post, at p. 654.) To be sure, plaintiffs have alleged that shear and fire walls do not comply with the applicable building codes, and that the purpose of codes for these components is to protect against those sorts of harm. (See ante, at p. 633 & fn. 1.) Yet, as the trial court recognized (see ante, at pp. 633-634), this does not necessarily mean that any given defect is sufficiently grave to pose a realistic risk of serious damage. (See also ante, at pp. 646-647.)

­FN 15. Plaintiffs may be surprised to read in the Chief Justice's concurring and dissenting opinion that he believes they have abandoned this claim. Plaintiffs did abandon a claim for so-called stigma damages, representing the residual loss of market value after repairs have been made, after losing on this issue in the Court of Appeal. As that court explained, no reported decision in this state appears to authorize such recovery; we intimate no view on the matter.

In contrast, diminished value is simply one of the standard alternative measures of damage for injury to property. The successful plaintiff in such cases ordinarily recovers either the diminution in market value attributable to the injury or the cost of repairs, whichever is less (Mozzetti v. City of Brisbane (1977) 67 Cal.App.3d 565, 576 [136 Cal.Rptr. 751]), although the rule is not rigid and the court may award the greater amount in appropriate circumstances (Heninger v. Dunn (1980) 101 Cal.App.3d 858, 863-864 [162 Cal.Rptr. 104]; see generally 6 Witkin, Summary of Cal. Law (9th ed. 1988) Torts, §§ 1461-1462, pp. 934-935). Plaintiffs understandably emphasize the cost of repairs in their briefs and argument because damages measured by the cost of repairs typically exceed damages measured by diminution in value.

This case is being remanded for further proceedings, possibly including a trial on any alleged defects that have caused property damage. (See ante, at pp. 634, 635.) Because plaintiffs have not expressly abandoned the right to recover the diminished value of their homes, should that turn out to be the appropriate measure of damages, we see no basis on which to preclude the court from applying the ordinary law of remedies.

­FN 16. Arguing that courts should do so, the Chief Justice cites Potter v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. (1993) 6 Cal.4th 965 [25 Cal.Rptr.2d 550, 863 P.2d 795]. (Conc. & dis. opn. of George, C. J., at pp. 663-664, 672-673.) The plaintiffs in Potter sought, among other things, medical monitoring costs following their exposure to carcinogenic toxic waste. In a footnote, we noted the suggestion of "[v]arious commentators and courts ... that creation of court-supervised funds to pay medical monitoring claims as they accrue, rather than the award of a lump-sum verdict, may be a more appropriate mechanism for compensating plaintiffs in a toxic exposure case." (Id. at p. 1010, fn. 28.) Nothing in the Potter decision, which we painstakingly limited to its specific factual and legal context, suggests that courts have a broad, general role in supervising the disbursement of tort recoveries.

­FN 17. In fact, the Legislature in this term has considered and rejected proposals to make persons engaged in residential construction liable for the cost of bringing homes into compliance with the building codes, without regard to the existence of property damage (Assem. Bill. No. 1669 (1999-2000 Reg. Sess.), as introduced Mar. 15, 1999) and to create a state-sanctioned home warranty program (Assem. Bill No. 1221 (1999-2000 Reg. Sess.)). We note the Legislature is also considering a bill that would recognize a lack of "empirical data on the incidence of construction defects, the amount of construction defects litigation, and whether there is any causal relationship between shoddy construction, construction defect litigation, and the construction of new condominium and affordable housing," and commission a comprehensive study to collect such data. (Sen. Bill No. 1882 (1999-2000 Reg. Sess.).) Defendants' motion for judicial notice of these bills is granted.

­FN 1. In the omitted footnote, the court wrote in Whiting-Turner: "It is the serious nature of the risk that persuades us to recognize the cause of action in the absence of actual injury. Accordingly, conditions that present a risk to general health, welfare, or comfort but fall short of presenting a clear danger of death or personal injury will not suffice. A claim that defective design or construction has produced a drafty condition that may lead to a cold or pneumonia would not be sufficient." (Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d at p. 345, fn. 5.)

­FN 2. The opinion in Moransais was filed after briefing in the present case was completed. On August 28, 2000, however, codefendant William Lyon Company filed a "Supplemental Brief of Additional Authorities," citing and discussing the recent subsequent history of a Nevada case cited in earlier briefs, and citing three other recent (and distinguishable) cases from other jurisdictions. Nonetheless, the supplemental brief failed to note that, more than one year earlier, the Florida Supreme Court effectively had overruled Casa Clara, supra, 620 So.2d 1244, the primary out-of-state case upon which Lyon had relied in its "Answer Brief on the Merits."

­FN 3. That statute provides: "For the breach of an obligation not arising from contract, the measure of damages, except where otherwise expressly provided by this code, is the amount which will compensate for all the detriment proximately caused thereby, whether it could have been anticipated or not." (Civ. Code, § 3333.)

­FN 4. Our opinion in Potter stated in this regard: "Various commentators and courts have suggested that creation of court-supervised funds to pay medical monitoring claims as they accrue, rather than the award of a lump-sum verdict, may be a more appropriate mechanism for compensating plaintiffs in a toxic exposure case. [Citation.] [¶] In Ayers [v. Jackson Tp. (1987) 106 N.J. 557 [525 A.2d 287, 314, 76 A.L.R.4th 571]], the court observed: 'Although conventional damage awards do not restrict plaintiffs in the use of money paid as compensatory damages, mass-exposure toxic tort cases involve public interests not present in conventional tort litigation. The public health interest is served by a fund mechanism that encourages regular medical monitoring for victims of toxic exposure.' [Citation.] Thus, in contrast to a lump-sum payment, a fund remedy will encourage plaintiffs to spend money to safeguard their health by not allowing them the option of spending the money for other purposes. The fund remedy will also assure that medical monitoring damages will be paid only to compensate for medical examinations and tests actually administered, thus serving to limit the liability of defendants to the amount of expenses actually incurred. (Ibid.) In turn, this should tend to reduce insurance costs, both to potential defendants and the general public alike." (Potter, supra, 6 Cal.4th at p. 1010, fn. 28.)

­FN 5. Although plaintiffs' complaint sought, among other things, damages for the diminution in value of their homes, plaintiffs' briefing and argument before this court make it quite clear that they have abandoned any such claim and that they now limit their negligence claim regarding code violations that have not manifested themselves in physical injury or property damage to recovery of repair costs. Plaintiffs' joint opening brief states the issue as follows: "Can homeowners and a homeowners association ... recover in negligence for the cost to repair violations of governing building codes ... even though the violations have not yet caused physical property damage?" (Italics added.) This phrasing of the issue and this singular focus of recovery sought at this stage in the litigation is repeated throughout the briefing. Indeed, plaintiffs specifically assert, "the measure of damages for negligent construction is limited to the cost of repair. Imaginative consequential damages are not applicable." (Italics added.) And plaintiffs also argue that defendants in this case should be responsible "only ... for compliance with governing building codes" and "will not be exposed to monetary damages beyond the cost of repair." Similarly, at oral argument, counsel for plaintiffs asserted that at this stage plaintiffs do not seek lost profits or any other such difficult-to-define form of damages, but instead, and only, funds necessary to address "very specific code violations for which specific repairs are designed and for which there is a known measure of damages"—namely, the specific "costs to repair code violations."

Thus, the matter in contention, at this point, is simply whether, with respect to code violations that have not manifested themselves in physical injury or property damage, we should recognize a limited negligence action for recovery of specific and definable repair costs. In my view it does not advance this inquiry for the majority to invoke repeatedly plaintiffs' now abandoned claim for damages relating to the diminished value of their homes.

­FN 6. At the same time, I completely agree with the majority's additional assertion that "we may ... reasonably assign reduced moral blame to less serious defects ... such ... as ... discolored drain stoppers, and inoperable garbage disposals." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 647.) Indeed, as explained below, I believe that we should distinguish between allowing recovery for correction of serious lifeand property-endangering code violations, and repair of defects such as those just listed.

­FN 7. The record indicates that defendants may yet challenge plaintiffs' claims based upon the statute of limitations.

­FN 8. In this regard, codefendant Lyon conceded at oral argument that "it is reasonable to assume that the percentage [of Northridge earthquake homeowners] that did suffer damage probably included a lot of ... homes that did not have compliance with the [prevailing] safety code[s]."

­FN 9. In the process, the majority rejects plaintiffs' assertion that the cost of repairs is an "accepted measure of damage for construction defects and that plaintiffs could make the cost of repairs certain ... by voluntarily repairing defects and obtaining a receipt for money spent." (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 646, italics added.) Although this point was expressly conceded by codefendant Branco Corporation at oral argument, the majority refuses to accept that concession, asserting simply that to do so would confuse "the measurement of alleged damages with the ability of particular facts to support a tort action." (Ibid.) Of course, reasonable certainty in both (i) the need to make repairs, and (ii) the amount of money required to accomplish repairs, must be proved. I view codefendant Branco Corporation's concession as recognizing that, if a homeowner reasonably were to undertake and pay for repairs in order to avoid the risk posed by serious building safety code violations such as the shear wall and fire protection violations here at issue, a court should conclude with a high degree of certainty that the homeowner has suffered injury, and that the third Biakanja/J'Aire factor is met.

­FN 10. In this regard, I find helpful Morris v. Osmose Wood Preserving (1995) 340 Md. 519 [667 A.2d 624], in which the Maryland high court explained that its decisions in this area "reveal a two part approach to determine the degree of risk required to circumvent the economic loss rule. We examine both the nature of the damage threatened and the probability of damage occurring to determine whether the two, viewed together, exhibit a clear, serious, and unreasonable risk of death or personal injury. Thus, if the possible injury is extraordinarily severe, [e.g.,] multiple deaths, we do not require the probability of the injury occurring to be as high as we would require if the injury threatened were less severe, [e.g.,] a broken leg or damage to property. Likewise, if the probability of the injury occurring is extraordinarily high, we do not require the injury to be as severe as we would if the probability of injury were lower." (Id., at pp. 631-632, italics added.)

The majority hypothesizes that distinguishing between "serious" and "minor" defects would "in practice" prove to be difficult and would "likely ... insulate from demurrer and summary judgment virtually all complaints containing allegations of building code violations." (Maj. opn., ante, at pp. 650-651.) As noted above, such a distinction has been recognized for more than 14 years (Whiting-Turner, supra, 517 A.2d 336, 345, fn. 5), but the majority fails to cite any authority suggesting that such problems have occurred in practice.

­FN 11. As Justice Mosk explains in his separate dissent, and as codefendant Lyon argued in the alternative in the Court of Appeal, the theory advanced in Judge Posner's opinion in Eljer Mfg., Inc. v. Liberty Mut. Ins. Co. (7th Cir. 1992) 972 F.2d 805, provides, by analogy, additional and separate support for recognition of a right to recover repair costs in the present case.

­FN 1. I italicize must because the word prefigures cautionary language in the Eljer opinion. The risk of harm—in Eljer, the "expected failure rate" (Eljer, supra, 972 F.2d at p. 812)—"must be sufficiently high ... to induce a rational owner to replace it" (ibid.) or repair it.

­FN 2. Eljer relied on Illinois law in interpreting the insurance policies. The Appellate Court of Illinois later rejected its interpretation. (Travelers Ins. Co. v. Eljer Mfg., Inc. (1999) 307 Ill.App.3d 872 [241 Ill.Dec. 178, 718 N.E.2d 1032, 1039-1041], review granted (1999) 186 Ill.2d 590 [243 Ill.Dec. 569, 723 N.E.2d 1170].) Leaving aside the policies' definition of "property damage," however, Eljer's conclusion favoring the so-called incorporation doctrine—that property damage occurs when defective installation or construction requires that walls be torn out or the like—is persuasive and should be applied here.

­FN 3. Like the Chief Justice, I concur in the majority's conclusion regarding trivial and nonhazardous alleged defects of the type to which the majority refer.

 

ASPESTOS

ASBESTOS in Flooring

 

What is asbestos?
Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral fiber mined from the earth. It is heat and chemical resistant, and is easily formed into just about any shape or product. It was used in more than 3,000 different construction materials and manufactured products, including many found in homes.

 

Can flooring contain asbestos?
Flooring, including sheet vinyl, vinyl or asphalt floor tiles and any associated paper-like underlayment backing, mastic, and  asphaltic (cut-back) adhesive manufactured prior to 1985 may contain asbestos. In the past, asbestos fibers were added during the production of flooring materials to strengthen the flooring and to increase its durability and flame resistance. Most flooring products manufactured after 1985 do not contain asbestos.  Products purchased after 1985 could contain asbestos if they came from previously manufactured inventories.

 

How do I find out if it’s asbestos?
You can check for asbestos markings on the material or its original packaging if available. Or, you can hire a certified asbestos inspector to sample the material or perform an asbestos inspection. Companies that perform sampling and inspections are listed in the Yellow Pages under “Asbestos Consulting and Testing”.

 

Where can samples of a building material be tested for asbestos?
RFCI recommends that samples be submitted to an analytical laboratory that is accredited by the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) through the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) or which successfully participates in the asbestos bulk analysis program of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA). A list can be found by state at the following link:
http://ts.nist.gov/Standards/scopes/plmtm.htm

 

If you have asbestos in your home…

 

Leave it alone
Asbestos is only a problem if asbestos fibers are released into the air. If the asbestos material is in good condition and if it is not being disturbed (sanding, dry scraping, drilling, bead blasting, mechanical chipping, pulverizing, etc.) then it will not release asbestos fibers. The safest and least costly option may be to leave the asbestos material in place.  Many new resilient flooring products can be successfully installed over the existing flooring.  Check the manufacturer’s installation guidelines before proceeding.

 

Remove it
Removing the asbestos material may be the best option if the asbestos material is extensively damaged or if it will be disturbed by renovation or other activities. Homeowners may legally remove asbestos materials themselves from the single-family home they own and occupy. However, the Resilient Floor Covering Institute (RFCI) strongly recommends using a licensed contractor familiar and trained in doing this work. All work should be performed in accordance with the
RFCI Recommended Work Practices For the Removal of Resilient Flooring.

 

When is the removal of flooring hazardous?
Flooring that contains asbestos, when intact and in good condition, is generally considered non-friable and is not hazardous. Heat, water, weathering or aging can weaken flooring to the point where it is considered friable. Friable flooring includes any material containing more than 1 percent asbestos that can be crumbled, pulverized or reduced to powder with hand pressure. This includes previously non-friable flooring material which has been damaged to the extent that it may be crumbled, pulverized or reduced to powder by hand pressure. Flooring can also be made friable during its removal. Friable materials can release asbestos fibers into the air. Once in the air, asbestos fibers may present a health hazard to people who inhale those fibers.

 

Residential Flooring

 

Can I remove asbestos flooring myself?
Removing resilient floor coverings is a common occurrence during home remodeling projects. Resilient floor coverings include linoleum, rubber, cork and sheet vinyl and vinyl floor tiles. Options for dealing with asbestos-containing flooring include removal or installing new flooring over it. Removal of in-place resilient flooring should be considered the final alternative. If removal of a resilient floor is required, the Resilient Floor Covering Institute (RFCI) recommends using a
licensed contractor who has completed the RFCI training program: Recommended Work Practices for The Removal of Resilient Flooring. (unless state or local laws require other measures). However, the information in this document will assist the homeowner who decides to remove the asbestos-containing flooring themselves do the work in a safe manner. It is important for the health and safety of you and your family that you perform the work correctly. Using the proper equipment, preparation, removal procedures and clean up are important in reducing exposure to asbestos fibers.

 

Is just having asbestos-containing flooring materials in my home or building a health risk?
No. Just having asbestos-containing flooring or adhesive in a home or building is not a health risk if the materials are in good condition.

 

Commercial Flooring

 

Are there federal and state regulations regarding the removal of asbestos containing resilient flooring in non-residential/commercial buildings?
Yes. At the federal level both OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration and EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) regulate the removal of asbestos containing materials. EPA also regulates the disposal of asbestos containing materials. Additionally, some state and local authorities have established requirements for the removal and disposal of asbestos containing materials.

 

Can my in-house maintenance staff remove asbestos containing resilient flooring?
In limited cases in-house employees can remove some types of asbestos containing materials but only after they have received the required training. There are federal, state and local regulations which apply to in-house employees removing asbestos containing materials.

 

MASTER LIST OF ASBESTOS MATERIALS

List of Forms, Products, & Materials Containing Asbestos

Asbestos was banned in all home construction uses beginning in 1990, but beware: pre-1990 products might have been used in some homes built shortly afterwards.

Low asbestos risk in some materials: One should note that some of these products contain such small amounts of asbestos, or asbestos in forms not easily converted to airborne fibers (non-friable), that the risk from the product is likely to be very small. One might elect to dispose of an old asbestos-containing toaster, but not to hire an environmental test firm or asbestos abatement company for that procedure. Many other asbestos-containing products, both historic and among some current products, encapsulate the asbestos fibers in cementious or resinous materials which minimize the possible release of asbestos fibers into the air.

Note: most of the uses of asbestos listed here are obsolete and the products mentioned have not been manufactured for quite some time. However these products may still be encountered, particularly in older buildings and among old consumer products.

However some current materials may contain and are permitted to contain asbestos. In May 1999 Asbestos Materials Bans Clarification was issued by the U.S. EPA clarified that there are some categories of asbestos-containing products that are NOT subject to a ban. For example, the Asbestos National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants, or NESHAP) rules issued in November, 1990 prohibits spray-on application of materials containing more than 1% asbestos to buildings, structures, pipes, and conduits unless the material is encapsulated with a bituminous or resinous binder during spraying and the materials are not friable after drying. [Italics inserted by -DF]. Thanks to Susan Kimball, Argus Pacific, for this clarification. See ASBESTOS REGULATION Update for details.

 

Forms & Products in Which Asbestos Was Used

Asbestos was used in both its long fiber form (photo at left, Rosato, courtesy J. Mansville), woven into cloths, for example, and in a powder form (as a filler in floor tiles).

These classes of asbestos fibers vary widely in size and also, depending upon the matrix of bonding or adhesive material and the mix of asbestos with other materials, the friability and release of asbestos particles from various materials varies very widely from probably below detection, to very great. It is also useful to understand that the form in which asbestos was used ranged among a number of forms.

The list below (adapted and expanded from the nearly-complete asbestos product list found in Rosato) lists forms of asbestos-containing products.

Raw asbestos was used in products such as in asbestos yarn, felt, plastic reinforcements, even in cheese making:

Asbestos Asbestos yarn, wick packing, felt, rollboard, insulating wire, 85% Magnesia pipe covering, blocks and locomotive lagging

Asbestos Compound for encasing motor windings

Asbestos in Drywall and drywall joint compound, drywall "mud", and textured coatings; includes Chrysotile asbestos, the most common form of asbestos found in products, especially in buildings (serpentine mineral with sheet or layered structure)

Asbestos Molded brake lining and brake blocks, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos Reinforcement in plastics

Asbestos Flooring - see ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE PHOTO ID GUIDE

Asbestos Asbestos cement products

Asbestos Paints, varnishes, fillers, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos; includes textured coatings and "popcorn ceiling" paints - acoustic ceiling paints intended to improve noise and sound control in buildings. See ASBESTOS FIREPROOFING SPRAY-On Coatings. Also see Asphalt-asbestos Paints & sealants.

Asbestos Filling for asbestos mattress insulation

Asbestos Insulation of walls and floors (loose fiber)

Asbestos Insulation in underground conduits (loose fiber)

Asbestos Wadding in cartridges and timing devices

Asbestos Platinized asbestos fiber for filtering

Asbestos In cheese making (spores are placed on asbestos)

Asbestos Asphalt floor tile (photo at left) - ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE IDENTIFICATION

Asbestos Adhesives

Asbestos Thread, rope packing

Asbestos Paper, plain and corrugated

Asbestos MIllboard

Asbestos Compressed sheet packing

Asbestos High temperature insulation (molded or various types)

Asbestos Molded composition for eledtrical and other purposes

Asbestos Automobile bodies and railway sleepers (molded composition)

Asbestos Filler in plastics

Asbestos Pottery and sculpture

Asbestos Plaster and stucco, includes Chrysotile asbestos,

Asbestos Sprayed asbestos (acoustical)

Asbestos Insulation of batteries (loose fiber)

Asbestos In foundations (to resist shock)

Asbestos Packing for explosives or other materials

Asbestos Filter fibers and filter pads

Asbestos Coating for welding rods

Asbestos Sewer pipe

Asbestos Automotive body undercoating

Vermiculite insulation contains naturally occurring asbestos fibers in some products, depending on where the vermiculite was mined - see VERMICULITE INSULATION

Asbestos yarns were in turn used to produce woven fabrics used in other products such as asbestos cloth, brake lining, steam hoses, even spark plugs

Asbestos Cloth, brake lining, packing, valve stem braided and other

Asbestos Wick for oil burning apparatus

Asbestos filters used in industrial processes for removing particulates from liquids including wine, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos Gaskets and gasket cloth, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos form.

Asbestos Twine or sewing thread

Asbestos Electric fixture wire covering

Asbestos Typing gas mantles

Asbestos Edges for hair felting

Asbestos Fire retardant hose

Asbestos Tape, electrical and other

Asbestos Clutch facings, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos Gas mask filters

Asbestos Tubing

Asbestos packing and sealants used in motors to seal at rotating shafts, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos Rope

Asbestos Stocking for lead cable

Asbestos Electric cable covering

Asbestos Spark plugs

Asbestos Steam hose

Asbestos cloth was used in products such as clothing, draperies, awnings, prison cell padding, ironing board covers, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos cloth packing, sheet, high pressure folded or wound

Asbestos cloth Clothing, suits, gloves such as used for firefighter protection, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos cloth Brake lining, folded or stitched, also in hard fiber form such as brake shoes, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos cloth Gaskets

Asbestos cloth Substitute for canvas on insulation, where temperatures are high

Asbestos cloth in Helmets, Aprons, Berets, Hangings for firestops, blankets in electrolytic cells, mailbags

Asbestos cloth Draperies, blankets for fire fighting, bags and diaphrams in oxygen production, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos cloth Awnings, theatre curtains

Asbestos cloth Floor lining in theaters, motion picture booths

Asbestos cloth Acetylene welding blankets

Asbestos cloth faced wipers in communication

Asbestos cloth used in filtering (fruit juices, acids, etc)

Asbestos cloth used for HVAC duct vibration dampers, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos - see Asbestos Air Duct Vibration Dampers

Asbestos cloth Oil filter sack (in automobiles)

Asbestos cloth Oven insulation

Asbestos cloth Lining of laboratories, cooling chambers and other rooms

Asbestos cloth Padding prison cells

Asbestos cloth Medical test apparatus

Asbestos cloth Sand bags for pressing hats

Asbestos cloth used in hay curing, to preserve aroma and color

Asbestos cloth Insulation against noise and vibration, especially in airplanes

Asbestos cloth ironing board covers

Asbestos cloth Rugs, theater scenery

Asbestos cloth liners in portable motion picture booths

Asbestos cloth Acoustical treatments

Asbestos cloth used in gun grips

Asbestos cloth Facing for dryer felt

Asbestos cloth Filter in dust collectors

Asbestos cloth Protectors for gas bags in balloons

Asbestos cloth Lining in motors

Asbestos cloth used in plastics

Asbestos cloth Padding for laundry presses and mangles

Asbestos cloth Wrapping oil tanks and oil lines in engines

Asbestos cloth Wrapping for asbestos-covered heating pipes and water piping, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos - see Asbestos Pipe Insulation

Asbestos cloth Umbrellas and shields for fire fighters

Asbestos cloth Conveyor belting

Asbestos cloth used in cheese making, for temprature control

Asbestos cloth fittings for airplanes

Asbestos felt was used in products such as acoustical liners, noise insulation, adhesives, plastics

Asbestos felt for acoustical work & noise insulation

Asbestos felt for papermachines

Asbestos felt for padding in pianos

Asbestos felt for adhesives

Asbestos felt for protection of underground pipe

Asbestos felt in plastics

Asbestos tape was used in products such as oven pull strings, winding electrical bus bars, insulating electrical wires on planes, ships, and in theaters, belts for conveying hot glue or other articles, insulating underground cables

Asbestos tape wick for oil burning apparatus

Asbestos tape pull strings in ovens

Asbestos tape insulating armature

Asbestos tape winding bus bars

Asbestos tape in laboratory use: insulation for flasks, test tubes, retorts, tie straps in diffusing materials

Asbestos tape in glass manufacturing for wrapping tines of forks to take bottles from ovens

Asbestos tape insulating electrical wires on airplanes and ships

Asbestos tape belts for conveying hot bglue or other articles

Asbestos tape insulating locomotive steam pipes at bends etc

Asbestos tape used in winding coils

Asbestos tape insulating underground cables

Asbestos wick packing was used as packing for piping, wire, armor plate, galvanized materials

Asbestos wick packing

Asbestos wick packing used in piping of wire, armor plage, or galvanized materials

Asbestos paper was used among a wide range of products such as asbestos felt roofing, stove or heater linings, soldiers helmet linings, electrical appliances, aluminum foil reinforcement for insulation, heating boiler jackets, liners, and duct coverings, gaskets.

Asbestos paper air cell and other pipe coverings

Asbestos paper asbestos felt roofing paper

Asbestos paper protected metal roofing

Asbestos paper wick in oil burning apparatus

Asbestos paper linings of stoves and heaters

Asbestos paper used to seal metal HVAC duct joints

Asbestos paper linings of filing cabinets, soldiers helmets, automobile mufflers, drumcontrollers, electric appliances, cartridges, carpets, radiator covers, cookers

Asbestos paper (corrugated) used to insulate heating piping & water piping

Asbestos paper (corrugated) used to insulate the interior of some warm air heating furnaces including in the air path or plenum

Asbestos paper armored car roofs

Asbestos paper enameling ovens to catch drip

Asbestos paper diaphraghm in electrolytic cell

Asbestos paper reinforcing aluminum foil for insulation

Asbestos paper window glass machinery to guide hot sheets; to sheild hot glass from flying fragments

Asbestos paper used in annealing (crumpled paper)

Asbestos paper covering of rockwool blankets which must be sewed

Asbestos paper boiler jackets (also asbestos paste lagging used on boilers and on pipe elbows)[DF]

Asbestos paper built up roofing BUR

Asbestos paper gaskets, plain and metallic

Asbestos paper tubes in electrical industry

Asbestos paper wrapping of hot air ducts or pipes

Asbestos paper used in or on motors

Asbestos paper insulation of ovens and dry kilns

Asbestos paper tank covers

Asbestos paper used in filtering

Asbestos paper used in chemistry and physics in many various ways

Asbestos reinforced with cotton thread for automobile tops

Asbestos paper wrapping of wires and cables

Asbestos paper insulating exhausts on automobiles

Asbestos paper table pads and mats

Asbestos paper baking sheets

Asbestos paper construction of air ducts or lining of paper ducts

Asbestos millboard, used in stoves, heaters, gaskets, motion picture booths

Asbestos millboard used in stoves and heaters

Asbestos millboard used in fire doors, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos millboard used in garages

Asbestos millboard used in electric switch boxes

Asbestos millboard used in garbage incinerators

Asbestos millboard used in bottoms of brooder stoves

Asbestos millboard used as fireproof wallboard

Asbestos millboard used in gaskets, plain and metallic

Asbestos millboard used in washers in electrical apparatus

Asbestos millboard used in metal clad doors (between outside metal and wood core)

Asbestos millboard used in table pads and mats

Asbestos millboard used in safes

Asbestos millboard used in motion picture booths

Asbestos millboard used in dry cleaning machines

Asbestos millboard used in hoods of automobiles

Asbestos millboard used in ovens and dry kilns

Asbestos millboard used as a covering for ceilings over boilers, furnaces, water heaters, smoke stacks, etc. for fire protection - see Fireproofing containing Asbestos

Asbestos millboard used in paddles in glass mills

Asbestos millboard usd as fire insulation over heating boilers - see Fireproofing containing Asbestos

Asbestos millboard used in tent shields and stove pipe rings

Asbestos fiber cement roofing shingles and tiles - see Asbestos Roofing Materials

Asbestos fiber cement siding and shingles - see ASBESTOS CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT SIDING

Asbestos millboard used in stove mats (some may be metal-covered) - see Fireproofing containing Asbestos

Asbestos-cement products, flat sheets, wallboard, such as in siding and roofing products

Asbestos cement materials used in interior sheathing of factories, refrigeration rooms, etc.

Asbestos cement materials used in wall partitions, movable and fixed

Asbestos cement materials used in brick type siding

Asbestos cement materials used in roofs and sides of small buildings (and large ones) ASBESTOS CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT SIDING and ASBESTOS CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT ROOFING

Asbestos cement materials used in fireproof layer on insulated board

Asbestos cement materials used in lining of fireless cookers

Asbestos cement materials used in brake shoes for elevators and automobiles, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos cement materials used in mounting of test instruments and gauges

Asbestos cement materials used in switch boards

Asbestos cement materials used in insulators between phases on arc deflectors

Asbestos cement materials used in electric motor casings

Asbestos cement materials used in lining for bleaching and other tanks and vats

Asbestos cement materials used in blackout or bombproof board

Asbestos cement materials used in exterior building sheathing including half-timber effect

Asbestos cement materials used in portable buildings

Asbestos cement materials used in semiportable motion picture booths

Asbestos cement materials used in fire protection around engines

Asbestos cement materials used in backing for dies in molded glass

Asbestos cement materials used in hoods over machines or vats from which vapor rises

Asbestos cement materials used in cabinets and panel box work

Asbestos cement materials used in miscellaneous electrical apparatus

Asbestos cement materials used in spark arresters

Asbestos cement materials used in backgrounds and cutouts for window displays

Asbestos cement materials used to insulate heating and water piping joints and elbows - see Asbestos Pipe Insulation

Asbestos cement used to produce various types of piping for water, vent piping, and HVAC ducts - see TRANSITE PIPE AIR DUCTS
Transite Pipe Chimneys & Flues
Transite Pipe Water Supply Piping

Asbestos cement pipes were used in these applications:

Asbestos cement pipes used for carrying water, sewage, gas, and special liquids

Asbestos cement pipes used for gas vent pipes such as plumbing vents

Asbestos cement pipes used for condiuts for electric light wires

Asbestos cement pipes used for purlins, rafters, etc. for wartime buildings

Asbestos [added by DF]: air ducts in buildings, often in floor slabs

Asbestos [added by DF]: gas heating or hot water heating appliance chimneys and flues

See
TRANSITE PIPE AIR DUCTS
Transite Pipe Chimneys & Flues
Transite Pipe Water Supply Piping
Transite cement panels were also sued for countertops and to form fire resistant wall and ceiling cladding such as in factories, shops, and heating or mechanical rooms. See
 ASBESTOS SIDING CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT

Asbestos composition material was used in these applications:

Asbestos-containing caulks and sealants, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos form.

Asbestos-containing crayons (using talc as an ingredient), predominantly amphibole asbestos

Asbestos-containing dental casts, fillers, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos-containing fluids such as drilling fluids, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos insulation compounds

Asbestos fibers in acoustic asbestos ceiling tiles and fire-resistant ceilings, often amphibole asbestos such as amosite, crocidolite, anthrophylite, teremolite, and actinolite, with amosite among the most commonly-found. - see CEILING TILES - Asbestos-Containing where we include photos of soft Tremolite asbestos ceiling panels.

Asbestos electric wire insulation

Asbestos lamp sockets, rheostat backings, switch parts, arc deflectors, resistance mountings and other electrical products

Asbestos underground insulation

Asbestos phonograph records, buttons and other small objects made of plastic

Asbestos heater cord insulation

Asbestos missle and aircraft plastics

Asbestos roofing products: roofing cements and flashing cements, roof coatings (tar or asphalt or bituminous coatings with asbestos fibers or fillers), flashing products - predominantly Chrysotile asbestos form. ASBESTOS CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT ROOFING

Asbestos siding products: see ASBESTOS CEMENT & FIBER CEMENT SIDING - predominantly Chrysotile asbesos form

Asbestos sealing of percussion caps in large cells

Asbestos flooring, sheet flooring and floor tiles: for a photo guide to tile and sheet flooring that contain asbsestos - "vinyl floor tiles that contain asbestos" or properly, vinyl-asbestos floor tile patterns, sizes, and years of manufacture, see Asbestos Flooring Product Names, Sizes, Years. Includes Chrysotile asbestos,

See Floor tiles that may contain asbestos for details about asbestos-containing flooring products.

Asbestos products in theaters included:

Asbestos localizing fires in location

Asbestos wall sections in theater sets to prevent reverberation

Asbestos firebox in theater fireboxes

Asbestos blinders or ears for theater lights or sun arcs

Asbestos dust on cobwebs, old wine kegs, etc.

Asbestos insulation for maintaining even temperatures

Asbestos protection of nearby buildings when fires are set

Asbestos insulation of camera booths against sound

Asbestos dressing winter scenes as asbestos snow

Asbestos noise and sound insulation in theaters

Asbestos theater curtains, predominantly Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos theater fireproof walls, using corrugated decorative wallboards

Asbestos theater flooring

 

MATERIAL SAFTEY DATA SHEET

 

Material Safety Data Sheet

 

MSDS is for those who will be exposed to a product.   The Material Safety Data Sheet contains a wealth of information that not only helps protect those working around the product, but helps resolve any concerns that one may have about the products used on the job site.

 

Basically, the MSDS provides proper information on: 1) what the product is, 2) how to work with it safely, 3) what regulations to follow for disposal and transportation and 4) if it contains any hazardous chemicals.   OSHA's guidelines on what should be in the MSDS are not too specific except that the product should be clearly identified with any hazardous chemicals, the manufacturer's name, where to call for any emergency and any other information useful in handling the product.

 

The Material Safety Data Sheet is usually comprised of 10 or more sections, which may or may not be in any particular order. Below, is a brief description of the various sections, typically are found in an MSDS:

 

PRODUCT INFORMATION - provides you with the specific product name, type of product and chemical family or type (solvent, dispersion, mixture, etc.).

 

HAZARDOUS INGREDIENTS - lists any hazardous materials in the product (usually levels at or greater than 1%). Also, provided will be the chemical's identification number, exposure levels and percentage of ingredients in the product. If no chemicals are listed it simply means that the product does not contain any hazardous chemicals on OSHA's hazardous chemical list.

 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - describes the physical features of the product: color, form, appearance, odor, density, pH, solubility in water, etc.

 

FIRE FIGHTING - provides you with the proper fire fighting procedures, the flash point of the product (if any) and any unusual hazards of the product under such conditions.

 

HEALTH EFFECTS - addresses the various routes of exposure (eyes, skin, inhalation) to the product and provides first aid information for those affected by exposure to the material.

 

REACTIVITY DATA - informs you on how stable the material or unstable the material is and what conditions to avoid (heat, cold, other chemicals) while using or storing the material.

 

PERSONAL PROTECTION - provides you with information proper equipment and clothing needed to protect you from overexposure to the material (goggle, gloves, dust masks, etc.). Also, methods of proper air ventilation in the work area are described, if necessary.

 

SPILLS/LEAKS AND REGULATORY INFORMATION - provides you with the proper information and instructions on how to best handle any spills or leaks, how to dispose of it and what and how much needs to be reported (and to whom).

 

TRANSPORTATION - provides the proper DOT shipping name, hazard classification and "Bill of Lading" description. Since this section is not necessarily required on the MSDS, its inclusion on the sheet is extremely helpful for shipping by common carrier.

 

 

COMMENTARY

 

Quality of any hardwood floor project extends from the type of material used in its intended environment through to the added installation experience, talent, time, and care, to fabricate the perfect floor.   Kind of the end of a Perfect Storm so-to speak.   Calm waters are not always encountered throughout the process.   The experienced installer requires complete control of his environment to perform his or her skills as a work of art.   With time and experience, the want-a-be expert installer must encounter pit-falls during that learning curve.   When the project falls just short of perfect (beyond the specified product), is when subjectively the floor must be evaluated as to be within or not, reasonable acceptability and, or related standards. Not all complaints fall within a particular written standard. The complaint('s) are many times as big as the number of out-side objectors, or know-it-alls that have all chimed-in with their (professional or unprofessional) opinions and experiences.   This is a big hump to climb over since the floor may be so near perfect, or nearest to be reasonably acceptable.   Well-done projects are sometimes deemed not perfect by the consumer.   So, who is the one that finds a reasonably experienced, arbitrator/consultant/inspector type.   The consumer will want to find an elderly local tradesmen or building contractor.   The installer will want to look for a reference from another who may have exceptionable confidence in a professional inspector, consultant.   There-go, all four participants might seem to create an argue party of sorts, if this type of event is pursued. A 3-party assignment must be sold to the consumer first. A pre-conference interview might be needed for all to agree on the event going forward.   Consultation between all parties must be a pre-paid invitation for the qualified, experienced, un-biased, flooring-inspector to be present.   There are not many who I would trust to make that attendance, but there are some.   If he or she can be found first, it goes a long way to expediting the solution.

 

FEDERAL SPECIFIER GUIDELINE

WHOLE BUILDING DESIGN GUIDE

Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers

This is a guidance document with sample specification language intended to be inserted into project specifications on this subject as appropriate to the agency's environmental goals. Certain provisions, where indicated, are required for U.S. federal agency projects.   Sample specification language is numbered to clearly distinguish it from advisory or discussion material. Each sample is preceded by identification of the typical location in a specification section where it would appear using the SectionFormatTM of the Construction Specifications Institute; the six digit section number cited is per CSI MasterformatTM 2004 and the five digit section number cited parenthetically is per CSI MasterformatTM 1995.

  

09 68 00 (09680) - 1

http://fedgreenspecs.wbdg.org 01/04/2010 Carpeting

 

SECTION 09 68 00 (SECTION 09680) - CARPETING

SPECIFIER NOTE:

resource management: Carpet is a composite product made from face fibers that are bonded to primary and secondary backing material, usually with an adhesive.   Manufacturers make carpet from different face fibers, which makes carpet recycling programs more challenging, as most carpet recyclers only accept carpet made from a particular type of face fiber.   The most common face fibers (and their respective percentage of the carpet market) are: nylon (57 percent), polypropylene "Olefin" (36 percent), polyester "PET" (7 percent), and wool (0.4 percent).

Wool, cotton, jute, hemp, seagrass and sisal rugs and carpets are available; however, most natural fiber carpets do not meet accepted performance requirements of commercial carpet. Many synthetic carpets contain recycled content.   Some carpet manufacturers offer a close-the-loop reclamation program.   Starch-based plastic fibers (polylactic acid or ‘PLA’ fibers) are in development.   Carpet pads manufactured from recycled textiles and waste carpets are available.

 

toxicity/IEQ:   Synthetic carpet fiber, backing, pad, adhesive, seam sealants, and floor preparation chemicals are all potential sources of VOC in indoor air. Carpet treatment for natural and synthetic carpet fibers (mothproofing, anti-microbial, etc.) are potential sources of VOCs in indoor air.   VOCs may be emitted from adhesives and from interaction of adhesive and carpet backing during the curing process.   However, since the inception of the Carpet and Rug Institute's (CRI) Green Label Program in 1992, the industry has made substantial reductions in the levels of TVOCs, as well as reductions in 4-phenylcyclohexene (4-PC), the compound most associated with "new carpet odor." CRI has established Green Label criteria for carpet, cushion, adhesive, and vacuum cleaners.

 

Installation with tack strips (stretch in method) over pads can avoid potential adhesive interaction with carpet backing. Provisions can be made for carpet with self-adhesive.

Carpeting also provide a sink for adsorbing VOCs emitted from other sources and home for a variety of bacteria, microbes, dust mites, etc. Area rugs are a possible alternative because they can be removed and cleaned outdoors by beating and letting the sun bake them.  

Refer to Section 09 65 00 (09650) – Resilient Flooring for additional, related information.

 

performance:   Carpeting provides improved thermal and acoustic performance. In addition to the close-the-loop recycling programs developing in the carpet industry, a few manufacturers also have green lease programs. CRI has introduced a Carpet Component Identification Code labeling system to make component identification easier for future recycling collection and sorting.

This labeling system is currently being used by many CRI member companies. Carpet America Recovery Effortsm (CARE) is a voluntary initiative of the carpet industry and government to develop market-based solutions for the recycling and reuse of post-consumer carpet. CARE was established in January 2002 as a result of a Memorandum of Understanding for Carpet Stewardship (MOU), a national agreement signed by members of the carpet industry, representatives of government agencies at the federal, state and local levels, and non-governmental organizations.   The MOU establishes an ambitious ten-year schedule to reduce the amount of waste carpet going to landfills. Refer to http://www.carpetrecovery.org/

 

PART 1 - GENERAL ASSIGNOR

 

1.1 SUMMARY

 

A. This Section includes:

1. Carpet, adhesive installation.

2. Carpet, stretch-in installation.

3. Carpet tile.

 

1.2 QUALITY ASSURANCE

 

A. VOC emissions: Provide low VOC products.   [Comply with California Department of

Health Services Standard Practice for the Testing of Volatile Organic emissions from Various Sources Using Small-Scale Environmental Chambers, including 2004 Addenda] [and] [or] 1. Adhesives and sealants:   Comply with California’s South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) #1168

2. Aerosol adhesives: Comply with Green Seal GS-36

3. Carpet: Comply with the Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI) Green Label Plus

4. Carpet cushion: Comply with CRI Green Label program

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

NSF-ISR has a standard for multi-attribute evaluation of environmental preferability: NSF 140 – Sustainability Carpet Assessment

The standard compares and assesses sustainable product characteristics of carpet.   Assessment is implemented through a point system that addresses: materials, water efficiency, energy conservation, air quality, and social issues. Four levels of achievement or compliance are attainable to reflect increasing movement toward sustainability: Conformant, Silver, Gold, and Platinum.   Edit below to suit project and to reflect latest published standard.

B. Provide resilient flooring compliant with NSF 140 [Conformant] [Silver] [Gold]

            [Platinum] level.

 

1.3 SUBMITTALS

 

A. Product data. Unless otherwise indicated, submit the following for each type of product

            provided under work of this Section:

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Green building rating systems often include credit for materials of recycled content. USGBC-LEED™ v3, for example, includes credit for materials with recycled content, calculated on the basis of pre-consumer and post-consumer percentage content, and it includes credit for use of salvaged/recovered materials. Green Globes US also provides points for reused building materials and components and for building materials with recycled content.

1. Recycled Content:  

            a. Indicate recycled content; indicate percentage of pre-consumer and post-consumer

                recycled content per unit of product.

            b. Indicate relative dollar value of recycled content product to total dollar value of product included in   

                project.  

            c. If recycled content product is part of an assembly, indicate the percentage of recycled content   

                product in the assembly by weight.

            d. If recycled content product is part of an assembly, indicate relative dollar value of recycled content 

                product to total dollar value of assembly.  

            e. Salvaged/Refurbished:   Indicate percentage of salvaged/refurbished content per unit of product.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Specifying local materials may help minimize transportation impacts; however it may not have a significant impact on reducing the overall embodied energy of a building material because of efficiencies of scale in some modes of transportation.   Green building rating systems frequently include credit for local materials.   Transportation impacts include: fossil fuel consumption, air pollution, and labor.   USGBC-LEED™ v3 includes credits for materials extracted/harvested and manufactured within a 500 mile radius from the project site.   Green Globes US also provides points for materials that are locally manufactured.

2. Local/Regional Materials:  

            a. Sourcing location(s): Indicate location of extraction, harvesting, and recovery;  indicate distance

                between extraction, harvesting, and recovery and the project site.

            b. Manufacturing location(s):   Indicate location of manufacturing facility; indicate distance between

                manufacturing facility and the project site.

            c. Product Value: Indicate dollar value of product containing local/regional materials;  include materials

                cost only.  

            d. Product Component(s) Value:   Where product components are sourced or manufactured in

                separate  locations, provide location information for each component. Indicate the percentage by

                weight of each component per unit of  product.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Green building rating systems may include credit for low emitting materials. USGBC-LEED™ v3, for example, includes credits for low-emitting materials, including:   adhesives and sealants, paints and coatings, carpets, and composite wood and agrifiber products.   Under LEED™ v3, adhesives and sealants are to comply with California’s South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) #1168; aerosol adhesives are to comply with Green Seal GS-36; interior architectural paints are to comply with Green Seal GS-11; anti-corrosive paints are to comply with Green Seal GS-03 (note – Green Seal has withdrawn GS-03; as of November 2008, anti-corrosive paints are included in a revised GS-11); clear wood finishes are to comply with SCAQMD #1113; carpet with the Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI) Green Label Plus; carpet cushion with CRI Green Label program; hard surface flooring with FloorScore; tile setting adhesives and grout with SCAQMD #1168; and, composite wood and agrifiber products are to contain no added urea-formaldehyde.

 

As per USGBC published Credit Interpretations, the credits for low-emitting materials are directed towards interior, site-installed (i.e. not prefabricated) products.   Verify project requirements for low VOC roofing products. Both the Adhesive and Sealant Council (ASC) and the SCAQMD have indicated that low VOC adhesives may have performance difficulties in extreme temperature and humidity conditions.   Green Seal, an independent, non-profit organization, certifies low-emitting products using internationally recognized methods and procedures. Green Seal certification meets the criteria of ISO 14020 and 14024, the environmental standards for ecolabeling set by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO); the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's criteria for third-party certifiers of environmentally preferable products; and the criteria for bona fide ecolabeling bodies of the Global Ecolabeling Network.

 

The CRI Green Label program includes a testing program to identify low-VOC floor covering adhesives. The program tests for chemical emissions using an independent laboratory that specializes in indoor air quality testing. Adhesives that meet the emissions criteria are allowed to display the program’s green and white label.

3.   VOC data:

            a. Adhesives:  

                        1)   Submit manufacturer’s product data for adhesives. Indicate VOC limits of the product.  

                              Submit MSDS highlighting VOC limits.

                        2)   Submit Green Seal Certification to GS-36 and description of the basis for certification.

                        3)   Submit manufacturer’s certification that products comply with SCAQMD #1168.] [Submit 

                              manufacturer’s certification that products comply with SCAQMD Rule 1168 in

                              areas where exposure to freeze/thaw conditions and direct exposure to  

                              moisture will not occur.   In areas where freeze/thaw conditions do exist or direct exposure

                              to  moisture can occur, submit manufacturer’s certification that products comply with Bay

                              Area AQMD Reg. 8, Rule 51 for containers larger than 16 oz and with California Air

                              Resources Board (CARB) for containers 16 oz or less.]

                          4) Submit verification that product is an Approved Adhesive Product under the Carpet

                              and  Rug Institute’s Green Label Program.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

The CRI Green Label test methodology was developed by consensus during an official dialogue with the EPA and has been adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as D 5116 – Guide for Small-Scale Environmental Chamber Determinations of Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials/Products. Green Label Plus, an enhancement to the CRI Green Label, incorporates additional requirements to meet California's Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) low-emitting materials criteria.  NSF International standard 140, Sustainable Carpet Assessment, is a multi-attribute performance standards with various levels of achievement by which carpet materials and products can be measured with respect to sustainability. While this Standard can be used on any carpet product, it is intended to be used for evaluation of commercial carpet products by providing a product evaluation methodology that is additive to emerging commercial green building standards.

            b. Carpet:   Submit [manufacturer’s] [independent, third party certification of compliance] with [Carpet

                and Rug Institute’s Green Label Indoor Air Quality program] [Carpet and Rug Institute’s Green Label

                Plus Indoor Air Quality program] [NSF/ANSI 140 Sustainable Carpet Assessment for level xxxx]

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

USGBC LEED v3 allows an alternative approach to credit for low emitting flooring materials.   It allows credit if all interior flooring elements comply with the California Department of Health Services Standard Practice for the Testing of Volatile Organic emissions from Various Sources Using Small-Scale Environmental Chambers, including 2004 Addenda.  [c. Finish Flooring Systems: Submit verification that all interior flooring products, including adhesives and floor finish materials, comply with California Department of Health Services Standard Practice for the Testing of Volatile Organic emissions from Various Sources Using Small-Scale Environmental Chambers, including 2004 Addenda].

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (also known as the 2008 U.S. Farm Bill) largely continues programs of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (2002 Farm Bill) http://www.usda.gov/farmbill/ Section 9002 requires each Federal Agency to develop a procurement program which will assure that items composed of biobased products will be purchased to the maximum extent practicable and which is consistent with applicable provisions of Federal procurement law. USDA designates biobased products for preferred Federal procurement and recommends biobased content levels for each designated product. USGBC-LEED™ v3 includes credits for use of rapidly renewable materials, which USGBC describes as plants harvested within a ten-year cycle.   Green Globes – US, provides credit for integration of materials from renewable sources that have been selected based on life-cycle assessment.

 

4. Biobased materials:  

            a. Indicate type of biobased material in product.

            b. Indicate the percentage of biobased content per unit of product.  

            c. Indicate relative dollar value of biobased content product to total dollar

                value of product included in project.  

 

B. Submit environmental data in accordance with Table 1 of ASTM E2129 for products

     provided under work of this Section.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Identify special maintenance agreements. Maintenance agreements are standard practice in the building industry. Take-back programs refer to programs in which the product manufacturer “takes-back” scrap material and/or packaging associated with its product. Green leasing is a new, but dramatic shift in the traditional perspective of leased equipment. Under a green lease, the product manufacturer is responsible for the disposition of the product at all times. Thus, when the customer no longer requires the use of the particular product or requires an updated model, the manufacturer is obligated to reclaim it and refurbish it or disassemble it for recycling as appropriate. This approach necessitates a revision of administrative services. It also requires a basic redesign of products in order to allow for future disassembly and upgrade. This has the potential to be cost effective for manufacturers and customers alike. It is also extremely resource efficient.  

C. Documentation of manufacturer’s [maintenance agreement] [take-back program][green lease] for carpet. Include the following:

1. Appropriate contact information.

2. Overview of procedures.

            a. Indicate manufacturer’s commitment to reclaim materials for recycling

                and/or reuse.

3. Limitations and conditions, if any, applicable to the project.

 

1.4 MAINTENANCE

 

A. Operational Service: Provide manufacturer’s [maintenance agreement] [take-back

program] [green lease] service for carpet installed in project. Service shall reclaim

materials for recycling and/or reuse. Service shall not landfill or burn reclaimed materials.

 

PART 2 - PRODUCTS

SPECIFIER NOTE:

EO 13423 includes requirements for Federal Agencies to use “sustainable environmental practices, including acquisition of biobased, environmentally preferable, energy-efficient, water-efficient, and recycled-content products”

 

Specifically, under the Sustainable Building requirements per Guiding Principle #5 Reduce Environmental Impact of Materials, EO13423 directs Federal agencies to “use products meeting or exceeding EPA's recycled content recommendations” for EPA-designated products and for other products to “use materials with recycled content such that the sum of post-consumer recycled content plus one-half of the pre-consumer content constitutes at least 10% (based on cost) of the total value of the materials in the project.”

 

Executive Order 13514; Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance; was signed on October 5, 2009. http://www.ofee.gov/execorders.asp It expands upon the environmental performance requirements of EO 13423.

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/regulations/printable_versions/eo13423.html

EO 13514 sets numerous federal requirements in several areas, including sustainable buildings and communities.   Federal agencies must implement high performance sustainable federal building design, construction, operation and management, maintenance, and deconstruction, including:

• Ensuring all new Federal buildings, entering the design phase in 2020 or later, are  designed to achieve zero net energy by 2030.

• Ensuring all new construction, major renovations, or repair or alteration of Federal buildings comply with the Guiding Principles of Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/mouhighperfsustainfedfacs.pdf

• Ensuring at least 15% of existing agency buildings and leases (above 5,000 gross square feet) meet the Guiding Principles by fiscal year 2015 and that the agency makes annual progress towards 100% compliance across its building inventory.   Additionally, for USDA-designated biobased products, Federal agencies must use products meeting or exceeding USDA's biobased content recommendations; and for other products, biobased products made from rapidly renewable resources and certified sustainable wood products.

 

And, under the Sustainable Building requirements per Guiding Principle #4 Enhance Indoor

Environmental Quality, EO13423 directs Federal agencies to use “materials and products with low pollutant emissions, including adhesives, sealants, paints, carpet systems, and furnishings.”

 

2.1 CARPET

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Nylon fiber is typically abrasion resistant and durable in all pile configurations using filament fiber, has good stain removal characteristics, and is recommended for the majority of commercial installations.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycled polyester fiber is stain resistance. PET type carpet is not recommended for severe wear level areas such as corridors, elevators, or lobbies, but can perform well in light to moderate wear areas.

Wool is a natural fiber, which is inherently flame resistant, forming a char that will neither melt nor drip. Wool is also resilient and due to the scaly character of its fiber it scatters optical light, thus reducing soiling visibility. Wool is recommended for the majority of commercial installations and highly recommended for shipboard use due to it being inherently flame resistant. Carpet made of wool is usually more expensive.

 

Carpet manufactured from bio-based materials (primarily soy resin) is being developed rapidly. Anticipate availability in Europe by 2003 and in USA by 2004. Biobased carpet components currently available include a soy-based polyurethane backing and a bonding adhesive derived from a tall oil byproduct. Choice of pile fiber will be governed by the prospective use of the carpet and should be determined by careful evaluation of texture retention, soil hiding, cleanability, abrasion resistance, desired appearance, cost and other factors applicable to the project.

 

Edit below to suit project.

A. Carpet Systems:  

            1. Toxicity/IEQ: Carpet systems must meet or exceed the Carpet and Rug Institute

                 [Green Label] [Green Label Plus] Indoor Air Quality Test Program. System

                 components include the following:

                        a. Carpet.

                        b. Cushion.

                        c. Adhesive.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

For current designations under the Federal Biobased Products Preferred Procurement Program (FB4P), refer to www.biobased.oce.usda.gov. As of January 4, 2010, the Federal Register includes designations for approximately 60 product types. The requirements for purchasing biobased items apply to those items directly purchased by the federal agency. Under a construction contract, the contractor's use of hydraulic fluid in its bulldozers and backhoes is incidental to the purpose of its contract, so the contractor is notrequired to use biobased hydraulic fluids.   The Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE) recommends that agencies encourage the use of these items, however.

Currently designated items that affect construction include:

• Roof Coatings

• Water Tank Coatings

• Adhesive and Mastic Removers

• Composite Panels

• Fertilizers

• Plastic Insulating Foam

• Carpet and Upholstery Cleaners

• Carpets

• Dust Suppressants

• Packaging Films

• Glass Cleaners

• Hydraulic Fluids – Stationary Equipment

• Wood and Concrete Sealers

• Cleaners

 

The USDA currently has identified about 150 items for which it is collecting test data needed for the additional designations of items that will extend preferred procurement status to include all qualifying biobased products.

            2. Biobased content:

                        a. Carpet systems: Floor coverings composed of woven, tufted, or knitted fiber and a backing

                            system. Provide minimum 7% biobased content.

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

USGBC-LEED™ v3 includes credit for reuse of salvaged materials. Salvaged materials typically require some additional material in order to refurbish for reuse. Refinishing millwork, for example requires “new” coating materials.   Verify acceptable percentages for material to be classified as “salvaged” with USGBC.

            3. Salvaged/refurbished: Carpet system fabricated from minimum [90] [100] [xxxx]

                 percent salvaged carpet or carpet tile.

B. Polyester Carpet Face Fiber:

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

US-EPA Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) 2002 recommends 25-100 percent post-consumer content for polyester carpet face fiber. Green building rating systems often include credit for materials of recycled content and may distinguish allowable credit for post-consumer and post-industrial (or pre-consumer) recycled content. USGBC-LEED™ v3, for example, factors 100 percent of post-consumer recycled content but only 50 percent of pre-consumer (post-industrial) recycled content into calculations for its recycled content materials credit. LEED v3 grants one credit to a project for using materials with recycled content such that the sum of post-consumer recycled content plus one-half of the post-industrial content constitutes at least 10 percent of the total value of the materials in the project; 10% (post-consumer + 1/2 post-industrial).   It grants an additional point for 20% (post-consumer + 1/2 post-industrial).   Green Globes US also provides points for reused building materials and components and for building materials with recycled content. Recycled content is typically determined by calculating the weight of the recycled material divided by the total weight of the product and expressed as a percentage by weight. (The recycled content “value” of a product as assessed under LEED is determined by multiplying the recycled content percentage and the cost of the product.)

 

Verify with manufacturer for product availability and recycled content.  

  1. Recycled content: Minimum [25] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled content.

C. Nylon Carpet Face Fiber:  

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

EPA is considering a proposal for nylon carpet and nylon carpet containing recovered content backing in

the next CPG.

1. Recycled Content: Minimum [5] [10] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled

content, or minimum [20] [40] [xxxx] percent pre-consumer recycled content at

contractor’s option.

 

D. Natural Carpet Face Fiber:

1. Toxicity/IEQ: Chemical treatments, including moth treatment, are [permitted

    with written approval from the Owner.] [not permitted.]

2. Biobased content: Provide fiber manufactured from minimum [7] [xxxx] percent

    biobased materials.

        a. Cotton

        b. Jute

        c. Sisal

        d. Hemp

        e. Wool

        f. Polylactic acid (PLA) fiber

 

E. Carpet Backing:  

            1. Biobased Content: Minimum [7] [xxxx] percent natural latex, jute, biobased

                 polyurethane, or cotton.

            2. Recycled Content: Minimum [5] [10] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled

                 content, or minimum [20] [40] [xxxx] percent pre-consumer recycled content at

                 contractor’s option.

 

2.2 CARPET ACCESSORIES

A. Cushion:

 

SPECIFIER NOTE:

Most of the substances commonly used in carpet cushion (some of which are also used in carpet backing) can be obtained from recovered materials, e.g. polyurethane, synthetic rubber, PVC, polyvinyl butryal, jute, other synthetic fibers. US-EPA Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) 2002 recommends 40 percent post-consumer content for jute (burlap) carpet cushion; 60-90 percent post-consumer content for rubber (tire) carpet cushion; 100 percent recycled content for synthetic fibers; and, 15-50 post-consumer recycled content for bonded polyurethane.

1. Jute:  

            a. Recycled content: Minimum [40] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled content.

2. Rubber:  

            a. Recycled content: Minimum [60] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled content.

3. Synthetic fibers:  

            a. Recycled content: Minimum [100] [xxxx] percent recycled content from carpet scraps.

4. Bonded polyurethane:  

            a. Recycled Content: Minimum [15] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled content.

 

B. Adhesive:  

            1. Toxicity/IEQ: Comply with applicable regulations regarding toxic and hazardous

            materials, GS-36 for Commercial Adhesive, CRI Green Label program, [South

            Coast Air Quality Management District Rule 1168] [Bay Area AQMD Reg. 8,  

            Rule 51 for containers larger than 16 oz and with California Air Resources

            Board (CARB) for containers 16 oz or less], and as specified.  

 

C. Underlayment:

            1. Fiberboard: As specified in Section 06 16 00 (06160) - Sheathing.

            2. Strawboard panels: As specified in Section 06 90 00 (06700) – Alternative

                 Agricultural Products.

            3. Cork:

                        a. Recycled Content: Minimum [5] [10] [xxxx] percent post-consumer recycled content, or

                            minimum [20] [40] [xxxx] percent pre-consumer recycled content at contractor’s option.

                        b. Biobased Content: Minimum [26] [xxxx] percent.

 

D. Flame Retardant Additives:

  

SPECIFIER NOTE:

EO 13423 includes requirements for Federal Agencies to reduce “the quantity of toxic and hazardous chemicals and materials acquired, used, or disposed of by the agency”. Most of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) that have been used as flame retardants have been phased out of production and are subject to a Significant New Use Rule under the Toxic Substances Control Act. In order to evaluate chemical alternatives for flame retarding foam, many factors must be considered, including toxicology, exposure, type of flame-retardant chemical, efficacy of use within existing manufacturing systems, availability and viability of non-chemical alternatives, cost and performance. Be sure to specify an alternative flame retardant that is appropriate to the application.    

 

For more information on alternative flame retardants, refer to EPA Design for the Environment Program’s report “Environmental Profiles of Chemical Flame-Retardant Alternatives for Low-Density Polyurethane Foam.” This report contains a summary of the environmental and human health attributes of selected flame retardants as alternatives to pentabromodiphenyl ether (pentaBDE).  

1. Toxicity/IEQ: Free of pentabromodiphenyl ether (pentaBDE).

 

PART 3 - EXECUTION

 

3.X SITE ENVIRONMENTAL PROCEDURES

 

A. Indoor Air Quality:

            1. Temporary ventilation: Provide temporary ventilation as specified in Section 01

                 57 19.11 (01352) – Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Management, and as follows:

                        a. Ventilate products prior to installation. Remove from packaging and ventilate in a secure,

                            dry, well-ventilated space free from strong contaminant sources and residues. Provide a                             temperature range of 60 degrees F minimum to 90 degree F maximum continuously

                            for minimum 72 hours. Do not ventilate within limits of Work unless otherwise approved by

                            Architect.

            2. Immediately after installation, clean carpet thoroughly with a [high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)

                filtration vacuum] [certified CRI Green Label vacuum cleaner].

            3. Final cleaning: As specified in Section 01 74 13 (01740) – Progress Cleaning.

 

B. Waste Management: As specified in Section 01 74 19 (01351) – Construction Waste

     Management and as follows:

            1. Coordinate with manufacturer for [maintenance agreement] [take-back program]green lease].   Set

                aside scrap to be returned to manufacturer for recycling into new product.

            2. Remodeling and renovation:   Remove existing carpet for reclamation in

                accordance with manufacturer recommendations and as follows:

                        a. Remove used carpet in large pieces, roll tightly, and pack neatly in container.

                        b. Remove adhesive according to recommendations of the Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI). 1)

                            Adhesive Removal Solvents: Comply with Carpet and Rug Institute Publication 104.

 

END OF SECTION